History

A prominent feature of the US prior to, during and years after World War I is that they maintained a racially segregated military; it was dominated by white soldiers and officers. This discrimination was not restricted to the US, but also to Europe where it remains so rampant that as late as 2007, military recruits were “being encouraged to imagine that they are shooting Black men” during shhoting training (Shabazz 1). The few African American soldiers who managed to get a chance to join the US forces were assigned non-combat duties which largely entailed serving the white soldiers. African Americans were considered unfit for combat roles and were therefore rarely deployed for such duties. Before the First World War, no African American was allowed to join the US Marine Corps, the Air Force or the Coast Guard. Their chance to take active combat duties for their country came with World War I when thousands of black soldiers were allowed to join the US combat forces to address the serious shortage of troops that arose due to the demands of the war. Their performance in the battlefield was to earn them much respect by the end of the war and to challenge the long-held belief that black Americans were incapable of fighting in organized war. However, during and after the war, African American troops did not receive the honour their white counterparts received. Racial discrimination was much a common feature in the military as it was in the country’s leadership. This ensured that African Americans’ life in the battlefield was, just like at home, more difficult than the white American soldiers. This paper looks at the role of African Americans in the First World War, their contributions and the ungratefulness the US leadership extended to these soldiers despite valiant efforts and sacrifices in the battle-fields.

African Americans in World War I
Prior to the First World War, racial segregation policies ensured that no African American joined the US Marines, Coast Guard or the Air Force. The Navy accepted some blacks to emlist but they had to work as messmen, and were not to be assigned any combat positions (Robertson 321). Never did Americans anticipate a situation where the wealthy military powerhouse would depend on the bravery and military prowess of this minority group. In the eyes of the white military officers, African Americans “lacked the courage, discipline and intelligence to fight effectively” (Aizenman, B.01). Thus there were only a few African American soldiers in the US military before this important war.

Shortly after the approximately 300,000 Afrivcan Americans joined the battle and left for the battlezones across the Atlantic, some white Americans descended on the now defenceless African-American ghettoes where they killed about 200 African American civilians and displaced 6,000 more (Katz 5). This was a most prominent indicator of white Americans’ hypocrisy, hatred, intolerance and selfishness.

Several African American volunteer regiments had been created during the Civil war but had been hurriedly disbanded after the war. Instead, six Army regiments, comprising African American soldiers serving under white officers were created. The 9th and 10th cavalry and the 24th and 25th infantry regiments were instrumental in the Indian war and the Spanish-American War. These were the only operational black units by the time the US joined World War I (Bryan).

With the onset of the war, a serious demand for combat troops arose and the US lacked a better option, other than to accept the African Americans it had judged totally unsuitable for its military. In fact, the draft boards “were doing all they could to bring them into service” (Bryan). African Americans on the other hand took this as an opportunity to prove to their oppressors that they were not capable of engaging any enemy in battle, but were not any inferior to the white American soldiers who believed in their own supremacy and the supremacy of their combat skills. When the US joined the war in 1917, numerous black commentators called on African Americans to join the forces and fight for their country as would enforce their clamour for equal rights. Among those calling African Americans to enlist was W.E.B Du Bois whose commmentaries on The Crisis magazine appealed to African Americans to join the battle. “If this is our country, then this is our war” wrote Du Bois.

As soon as the Selective Service Act was passed in May 1917 allowing African Americans aged between 21 and 31 years to join the military, they took the opportunity readily. It so happened that the African-American soldiers proved as good as the white soldiers, if not better.

The training program for these black soldiers provided the chance for the white instructors and officers to extend their racist mindsets. As soon as they joined training, instructors started complaining that they African Americans were slower learners than white trainees (Leiser 112). In Houston, Texas, Spartanburg and Fort Riley, African American soldiers were mistreated by their white counterparts during training.Fights between white soldiers and the oppressed black soldiers were not rare in the camps. Some black soldiers were arrested and convicted by court martial of such crimes as burglary only to be released after intervention by campaigners and judges (The Crisis 60)

Most of the African-Americans who joined the US military during the war had known racial discrimination throughout their lives. Many were from America’s south where they had grown up “in the usual, repressive Jim Crow environment found throughout the South” (Tate 106). In the military, they were treated as second class citizens and second class soldiers regardless of their experience or academic qualifications and skills. The white seniors had to ensure that no black soldiers rose to a rank which allowed them to command white soldiers. This meant that African American soldiers had to be restricted to the lowest ranks in the military. The white US military officers were convinced that “black soldiers were lazy, afraid of the dark, couldn’t take care of their weapons, wouldn’t dig foxholes, didn’t trust each other and thus would not stand and fight” (Galloway  45).

Dubois had complained that thw white American society, despite being the most vocal supporters of democracy, retained undying racial prejudices which made them see the African Americans as inferior beings. He wrote, “America, the land of democracy, here comes forward with increased frequency as a supporter of the doctrine that democracy belonged to the white race alone” (Keene 138)

When the US military deployed the first all-black units to Europe, the black soldiers appreciated that they had the tougher duty of not only fighting the enemy overseas, but also proving their capability to a white military and society which did not have much trust in them. By fighting in the US military uniform, the African Americans saw an opportunity for them to defeat the rampant racial discrimination at home. They chose to “walk the highway of patriotism, with human dignity, in the face of racial insults” attacking enemies with bravery and professionalism that would amaze even the white supremacist officers (Gershenhorn  159).Their exploits in the war against the discriminating military seniors inspired their counterparts at home to fight and defeat racial segregation. One woman was recorded asserting, “When we read of the many insults which come to our boys in the uniform, we should be moved to fight with increased energy for the things that rightfully should be ours” (Gershenhorn 159).

About 200, 000 black soldiers served overseas, a quarter of whom took active combat duties. The African American soldiers joined the Black 369th Infantry of the 93rd Division and crossed the Rhine in Germany as the first Allied forces group and were confronted with fierce opposition from German troops. The soldiers fought the German enemies so ferociously that the Germans nicknamed them “Hell fighters.” So valiant were these African American soldiers that they are known to have engaged used their bare hands and knives to fight Germans armed with rifles (Crisis 44). The Harlem Hell Fighters remained in the battlezones longer than all other American combat units.

Racism was still rife in the battlefields in Europe where black troops are claimed to have been sent on the most dangerous missions. There were also claims that injured African American soldiers were abandoned in the battlefields to succumb to their injuries, often dying painful and horrifying deaths. Yet the same soldiers complained that they were not seeing the most intense action (Military History Home n.d). Evidence of this racism manifested by the white American soldiers against their black counterparts was that the black combat unit attached with French commanders tended to perform far better than those under the leadership of white American officers. Du Bois argues that the white and racist seniors were largely to blame for the weaknesses noted among their African American chargees. After the war, interviews with African American troops returning from the war revealed that members of the unit which had been put under French command had had better experiences than the rest. With the French, “black soldiers could eat where they wanted and socialize with whom they liked… [and] laugh and joke and think as friends” (Keene 143).

On returning home, the African Americans realized that, despite having earned some respect from white Americans who had dismissed them as unsuitable for battle, they were still far from realizing any semblence of equality in the interactions with the white American society. Actually the white American soldiers were quick to dismiss the African American soldiers as cowards and unprofessionals.  One white soldier said on returning home from the war, “African-American soldiers were a bunch of cowards… every one of them would rape a white woman if he was not held down by the whites” (Keene 143).

The French, on the other hand, had much praise for the African soldiers whom they worked with and regarded as professional and brave fighters whose dedication to the United States and democracy was unshakable. While the US dilly-dallied, the French went ahead to award one of the soldiers who had single-handedly managed to fought off a group 20 German attackers to rescue his comrade with a Croire de Guerre with Gold Palm (The New York Amsterdam News  43). The French General Goybet of the 157th Division of the French forces in praising the 372nd US Infantry Division remarked:
Never will the 157th Division forget the indomitable dash, the heroic rush of the American Regiments (Black) up the observartory ridge and into the plains of Manthois…These crack regiments overcame every obstacle with a most complete contempt for danger. Through their steady devotion, the Red Hand, for nine whole days of severe struggle, was constantly leading the way for the victorious advance of the Fourth Army” (The Crisis  44).

When they returned home therefore, African American soldiers had to continue the fight which was far from won, the fight against racial discrimination.This, they realized was going to be a battle tougher than the one against Germans they had just defeated. One member of the Hell Fighters remarked on return to America, “We are going to keep fighting for democracy till we get our rights here at home. The black worm has turned” (Katz ). The US government was unwilling to reward their achievements and sacrifices during the war as it did with the white soldiers. While hoardes of airtime and newspaper space was devoted to the praise of the accomplishments of the American soldiers who had just vanquished their nenmies overseas, not much was said about the black soldiers who had been instrumental to the victory. At the end of the war, members of the 369th Infantry were awarded the Croix de Guerre in honor of the bravery and dedication to their country (The Crisis  44). Only years later did writers generate interest in the experiences of the African American soldiers.

Shortly after the end of the First World War, white Americans again attacked African American settlements in 26 cities, wreaking havoc and killing African Americans including the soldiers who had just returned from the war. However, this ‘Red Summer’ attacks marked a change in the relationship between white and black Americans. While the white Americans had attacked African American settlements and got away with, the post-World-War I African Americans were aggressive and eager to defend their rights. The African Amerians arose and fought back, with as much gallantry as they had shown during the war. The Harlem poet Claude Mckay inspired the African American society with one of his poems:
    If we must die, let it not be like hogs
    Hunted and penned in inglorious spot
    Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighhting back (Katz  5).

The US may not have honoured African American veterans of the First and Second World War equally with white veterans of the same wars. It may have declined to acknowledge the important role played by the African American troops during that war. Worse still it may have denied African Americans their rights even after the sacrifices they had made for the United States. That has however not dilluted the role these brave and dedicated soldiers played between 1914 and 1919. Through numerous authors and film-makers, the world now knows what happened during that period and admires the bravery and dedication of African American soldiers.

Introduction
Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India. He was one of the most respected political and spiritual leaders of the time. He helped in the freeing the Indian people from the oppressive hands of the British through the use of nonviolent resistance. India recognized the contributions he made to the country and named him the father of the nation. Gandhi was named Mahatma by the people of India meaning great soul (Rosenberg, 2009).

The life of Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi married his wife Kasturba at the age of 13 years. He studied law in London and returned to India in the year 1891. In London Gandhi had decided to mould himself into an English gentleman but later realized it was all waste of time and money. He therefore decided to live a simple life and take on his studies seriously. The simple kind of life he decided to live made him discover that he was a vegetarian. He joined the London vegetarian community in his search for vegetarian hotels. The society consisted of a large group of intellectuals who introduced him to very many authors. Through this society, Gandhi started to read the Bhagavad-Gita, a poem that was considered sacred by Hindus and a series of many other books. He learned new ideas and concepts from the different types of books that he read and with these and developed the foundation of his beliefs (Rosenberg, 2009).

In the year 1893, he took a 1 year contract to do legal work in South Africa so as to improve his self confidence at trials. Gandhi stayed in South Africa for 21 years, suffering at the hands of the British who were the colonizers of South Africa. His stay in South Africa saw him transform from a silent and shy man to a strong and resilient leader against discrimination. Gandhi experienced his first form of discrimination in South Africa after he was thrown out of a train while he was on his journey to Transvaal for his first case. At that cold night, Gandhi decided to fight against the injustices. The tribulations faced by others and which he was later to face encouraged him to develop a method of nonviolence fight for justice based on courage and truth called Satyagraha. In his life, Gandhi believed that the way people behave is more important than what they think. As a way of obtaining political and social targets, Satyagraha promoted the use of civil disobedience and nonviolence. Gandhi opted to use fasting to show others the need of nonviolent means in their struggle. He learned more about the grievances faced by other Indians, studied law organized petitions and wrote letters to the officials, all in the process of fighting against injustice (Rosenberg, 2009).

Gandhi became a leader of the Indian community in South Africa. He joined the National Indian Congress, an organization for the wealthy Indians and expanded it such that it accommodated Indians from every class. In the year 1896, he went back to India to take his wife and his son with him to South Africa. Bubonic plague outbreak occurred then and he offered to inspect the latrines of the rich and the poor as the disease was associated with poor hygiene. Gandhi went back to India in 1915 and within 15 years, he became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement. He used the same principle of Satyagraha to lead Indians in the campaign for independence from British. In the process of fighting for justice, Gandhi was arrested many times by the British colonialists both in South Africa and in India (Fischer, 1983). He was sentenced for seven years for inciting people against the British. He believed that going to jail for a just cause was an honor.  His simple lifestyle and minimal dressing earned him envy from the people. He spent his life in fighting for the rights of the poor people and advocated for the removal of British colonialists from India. Gandhi’s way of fighting for justice using nonviolent tactics was emulated by other human rights activists in the world such as Martin Luther King Jnr. Gandhi worked very hard to preserve the Hindu-Muslim relation (Easwaran, 1997). He had observed a 21 day fast in his cell when a Muslim-Hindu war broke out at kohat. Gandhi suffered humiliations from the leaders of the Indian untouchables.

Achievements of Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi initiated a constructive program for social reforms. He introduced the concept of ahimsa and Satyagraha. He led the Indians to break the salt laws which deprived the poor Indians from owning salt when the British failed to give into their pleas. British had exercised monopoly in the production and sale of salt. Gandhi was arrested with many other demonstrators. Irwin agreed to hold a round table conference with Gandhi in London so as to negotiate for possible conditions of Indian independence. Before the involvement of Gandhi in Indian politics, the struggle for independence in India was very minimal (Easwaran, 1997).

Gandhi was mainly engaged in the constructive reform of the Indian community. He decided to live at a remote village in India that had no electricity and running water and vowed to return to Ahmedabad after India was granted independence. Gandhi had a very great influence on the functionong of the Indian Congress working committee. In the year 1942, Gandhi delivered a speech urging all Indians to lay down their lives for the cause of Indian freedom and at the same time asked the colonialists to leave the country (Fischer, 1983).

Gandhi distanced himself from politics when he realized that leaders were craving for power rather than the interest of the Indian population. After war, the conflicts between Hindu and the Muslims took place; Gandhi undertook a major duty of nursing those who were wounded and consoled those whose people had died. Gandhi constituted a one–man boundary force between the Muslims and the Hindus in the prominent words of his last viceroy.  Gandhi’s efforts to unite the two religious communities brought the fighting in Calcutta to a stop. His critics referred to it as ‘the Gandhi’s miracle of Calcutta’. India finally gained independence in the year 1947 after a rigorous process and tribulations faced by Gandhi and other Indians. Gandhi therefore played a key role in winning independence for his country. Later on, a war broke out between the Muslims and the Hindu in Pakistan; it led to death of one million people and scores of others displaced. In order to advocate for ceasefire, Gandhi started his last fast unto the death of his life. He terminated the fast after the leaders of both societies signed a treaty saying that they were then prepared to live in harmony and safeguard the lives, property and faith of the Muslims (Easwaran, 1997).

Gandhi devoted all his life out of politics to promote peace between Hindus and Muslims. This angered the Hindu fundamentalists and in January 30, 1948 he was shot by a Hindu radical while he was attending his usual evening prayers. The last words he said before he died were Hey Ram.
Conclusion

The contribution of Mahatma Gandhi to bringing independence to India and peace between the Muslims and Hindus will be remembered by many generations to come. His role for a just society is not only of great magnitude in India, but in the entire world.

The issues put forth before the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563, addressed many of the contentions of the Protestant faith toward the Catholic Church. Touching on the disagreements over issues concerning original sin in relation to  infant baptism, as well as the sacraments of confirmation, the Eucharist, penance, extreme, unction, order, and matrimony, the hierarchy of the clergy, saints, celibacy, and what was termed the indulgences of the clergy, the Council of Trent sought to defend their own practices against the onslaught of Protestantism. However, in many respects the Catholic Church provided little defense against their critics, instead they adhered to their principles out of, it appears, almost sheer tenacity. In calling the disbelievers in their tenets of faith “anathema” they are condemning those who do not believe in their ways and defending their position through completely offensive tactics. Relying on the rhetoric central to the ideals of the church, they simply reiterate long held beliefs that have come under attack by Protestantism. Rather than a new look at the faith, it is a reaffirmation of old principles geared toward the disbelieving. Primarily the Council of Trent illustrated how central the ideals of ritual and organization of power were to the church during the period. If anything, through the Council of Trent, the church merely reinforced the stereotypes set forth by Protestants of a kind of exclusive club. While trying to defend themselves against the Protestant beliefs in a more humble church where the sacrament of the Eucharist and the powers of communication with God are not the intellectual and religious responsibility of the church, the Catholic Church provided additional fuel for the fire.

Charles Darwin's exhibit focuses on the importance of evolution as a scientific foundation and how the knowledge of people about the theory of evolution has evolved over the past few decades. The Evolution of Evolution centers on Darwin's theory and how this contributed in the unification of all biological sciences.

    When I visited the works of Darwin located at the first floor of the National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), I was amazed with the collections displayed on his exhibit. There are diverse collections of insects, mammals, birds, flowers, and fossils which explain the theory of evolution that marks an indelible impact on the development of researches on sciences.

    On the first wall of Darwin's exhibit, a sign which states “Natural Selection Checklist” caught my attention. This exhibit explains the three statements which have something to do  with the theories of Darwin about survival and existence. The first statement talks about overproduction of individuals. This explains that when the population increases while the resources decreases, there will be ecological imbalance in the environment. For instance, during drought, there is a great possibility that most of the birds will die because of the limited available food in the environment. The second statement deals with the differences among individuals. This explains that individuals have differences in many aspects. Just like the human beings, animals have also different characteristics based on their needs and way of living or existence. For example, Finches have larger bills because they prey on fishes and other organisms in water. Nevertheless, some birds have small beaks because they feed on the seeds of fruits. The last one is the differential survival of the living organisms. This delves on the different ways of animals on their way of living which includes getting of food, survival mode and the like.

       On the other side of the exhibit, there is also a part which explains about the personal information about Charles Darwin. I have learned from the exhibit that Darwin was born two hundred years ago. Likewise, on the exhibit, there is a part that shows the way of thinking of Darwin today if he is still alive. I found this very interesting especially the testimonies about the evolution and the other types of Darwin's work.
    Above all the things presented in the exhibit about Darwin's work, the monkey is the thing that caught most of my attention. Ever since I was a child, I know Darwin through his evolution theory and this was known through the symbol of the monkey. We all know that  evolution theory states that man descended from monkey. His theory explains the similarities of human and monkey with regards to physical characteristics which prove and justify the said theory.  
       
    This experience at the National Museum of Natural History was indeed a great exploration of Darwin's principles and theories. And I really learned a lot from this person who was considered as one of the important individuals who contributed in the development of sciences.