History

The mastery of Stephanie Smallwood lies in the fact that in her book she restrains to present the readers numeric information regarding the study of Middle Passage, which can be read from the chronicles as well. It is interesting to read the journals, letters and stories about the trade to have a close look at the issue of slavery rather than using account books. The narrative of African slaves brought to America, saltwater slaves, presents the brutality hidden under the ignominious cycle of slavery drawn brilliantly by Smallwood. The book focuses on the British slave trade from the Gold Cost during a period ranging from 1675 to 1725 while presenting her exploration of the processes of forced migration. Smallwoods book, says Ira Berlin (author of Many Thousands Gone), is a new starting point for the studies of the Middle Passage. The narrative is different from the other studies of the Atlantic slave trade that Smallwood enters into the minds of the petty slaves in a way that we see the things from their perspective while sympathizing with them. It is really moving to read the account of the origin of African-America in the global market that was violent. It is an account of the way the brutal act of slavery was seen by Europeans and the Africans and also criticizes historical accounts simultaneously.  

Smallwoods repaints the route from Africa to America in a new way from the perspective of the African migrants through a strong argument. She meditates on the processes of commoditization in Atlantic markets as the book is seen by the author herself as a history of economic systems. Her argument is well conveyed in the book as she argues that the Atlantic trade had been different from the 17th century slavery of Africans because it perpetuated the process of slavery and the vicious cycle of injustice by making the human beings commodities through an organized and institutionalized system. Her emphasis on the importance of the process of commoditization in the slave trade is made evident as she spends four chapters just discussing the process. They choose them as they do horses (Smallwood, 2007,158).

The readers are detached from the central argument as they go on to read pages and pages about the process of commoditization. She shows how West African slave factories required the slave traders to collect men before going to Americas sea voyage. While she moves from the process of commoditization to the question of having and building separate identity of the Africans in America. She goes on to explore the identity of Akin speaking community while stating that the  assumption about the formation of community on the basis of shared culture traits is open to challenge as one tends to comprehend identity. In the regime of market the prominent feature of the Africans was their exchangeability and as migrants was isolation (Smallwood, 2007,189). Smallwood presents her view that a herd of people women, men and children can not be called a group or a crowd but only a mutilated assemblage, a novel and problematic social configuration and an antithesis of community  of people who are alienated and dissociated with each other and do not share any common thing except being chained. It was difficult to thinking to return to their own country to face the problem of integration (Smallwood, 2007, 183). She supports her argument while referring to Birth of African American Culture by Sydney Mints and Richard Price. In the final chapter of the book she calls for the need to reverse the process of commoditization by denouncing it in order to assert a social position in the American society. In her book Smallwood does not write pages for the things that had been a focus of studies for many historians rather she gives evidences for her arguments as she gives the true experience of Charles Ball who used to be a slave himself, Consider the scene ex-slave Charles Ball witnessed in South Carolina (Smallwood, 2007, 189), of an African-born man who put a canoe on his sons grave for allowing him to go back to Africa.

Smallwood makes her argument strong by the anecdote of saltwater that implied the obligation for the slaves to perform ritual to meet the needs during slavery on Atlantic system. Smallwood wants the readers to see the damage done by the Atlantic system that turned the human beings into commodity snatching them of their identity and individuality and alienated them from the external world that looked at them as an alien community or a herd of chained slaves. It questions the issue of African identity in the American society. The fact is evident that Smallwood fails to answer the issues raised through her arguments but the enquiry that she made in order to rediscover the issue makes the readers to accept and comprehend her arguments and they tend to sympathize with the slaves. There was a need of more data in the first chapter about the role of the Dutch in the vicious slave trade and it could be better if Smallwood would have traced the history of slavery from 15th to 17th century but the most important point is that the author conveys her message successfully.   She suggests that Diasporas Africa is constellation of discrete ethnic and linguistic groups (Smallwood, 2007, 189) so the question is of the shared culture of the Africans.  

One of the valuable aspects of history seeks to offers us varying perspectives about the realities of individuals and events that transpired in the past. This enables readers not only to synthesize about particular information given to them but also recognize that there are other ways to interpret. Seeing this, it provides concrete grounds for learning as readers become critical in defining and finding options that can shape and induce peoples ability to establish a fair and sound analysis.

Reflecting on the readings provided concerning Alexander the Great, it connotes finding new options to understand the historical figure. In this way, it offers a rather critical and other side of the persona. Contrary to our own individual beliefs about Alexander the Great, this chapter offers something why he is not so great after all. Using historical analysis and comparative analogy, these authors were able to establish a point regarding the real person Alexander is and what shapes his individual actions accordingly (Snyder and West, 2007).

Reacting on this, I do believe that it is crucial for learners to have an open and critical mind to the things that they see. Not everything that is given to them remains to be true. The discipline of history also corresponds to the interpretation and designation made by people over a particular actor or event. It is then crucial to find out and determine alternative aspects that have shaped the development of the event or personas actions. Such aspect then cultivates the need to critically assess every piece of information and detail provided.

At the same time, the process of immersing new dynamics towards expanding knowledge also arises out of this endeavor. Provided that history can be seen in numerous face corresponding to the intention and goal of the individual or group, it is then important for students to dig deeper to gain appreciation about the relevance of these stories to the way people view life, leadership, and function towards the changes happening in todays society and environment.

The reading also illustrates the reality that exaggeration, mistakes, and misinformation can indeed happen in the creation of historical documents. Here, Alexander the Great character may provide to be such based on actual information. Contrary to the ideas taught to us when we were young about this general, there are other features present  that also contributed to his rise and power and continued expansion. However, these negative qualities may have seemed to be overlapped by his contributions and positive values. This sort of bias I believe contributes to wrongfully informing readers the true story of his life.

In the end, it can be argued that these contribution on a rather alternative accounts to the history of Alexander the Great provides better ways for readers not only to synthesize common themes existent within the story but also creates a dynamic way to learn that history offers alternative accounts that looks into the bigger picture of the story  not something derived from one (preferable) side only.

The invasion of Afghanistan started on October 7, 2001 but Canada did not play a major role in the first few months. Canada sent its first troops in Afghanistan in January- February 2002. It played a significant role from 2006 when its troops were redeployed in the Kandahar province. Currently, there are around 2500-2830 Canadian soldiers deployed in Afghanistan. These troops are part of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). This was a force that was formed with an aim of eliminating worldwide terrorism. The war against Afghanistan was initiated by the United States after the September 11 attacks and it was aimed at identifying and eliminating the al-Qaeda terrorist group in Afghanistan and overthrowing the Taliban government which was believed to be a supporter of international terrorism. The main factor behind Canadas participation in the Afghanistan war to ensure national interests was secured and Canadian leadership remained relevant in the world affairs in as far as Afghanistan concerns. On October 7 2001, the defense minister announced that Canada would be sending its troops to join the international security assistance force and help in toppling of the Taliban regime. The Canadian involvement in the war was initially planned to last up to October 2003. Forty Joint Task Force 2 soldiers were eventually deployed in Afghanistan in December 2001. The deployment of the forces was kept a secret and some months later, there was an outcry in Canadian parliament following publication in The Globe and the Mail of Canadian soldiers handing over captured prisoners to the American forces. The outcry was mainly because the parliament had not been informed of these operations. The defense minister Art Eggleton was accused of deploying JTF2 soldiers in Afghanistan without informing the prime minister or the parliament. Even now the Canadian government has refused to accept the deployment of its troops to Afghanistan as a war but instead claims it s a stabilization that is aimed at preventing another terrorist attack like that which occurred on 911. The Canadian forces played a major role in the war. In the operation Anaconda, 3 Canadian snipers broke and re-broke the record set by a US marine in the Vietnam War for a long distance sniper kill. In general, the Canadian forces launched and participated in many operations either on their own or alongside the American forces.

NATOs role in Afghanistan
The main role that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) plays in Afghanistan is to help the government. Through the International Security Assistance Force which is mandated by the United Nations, NATO assists the government of Afghanistan in exercising its authority and extending its influence throughout the country. In doing this, it paves the way for effective and efficient governance and also helps in creating a stable environment for reconstruction and development. Currently there are 80,000 ISAF troops from 44 countries operating under NATO. ISAFs main role in Afghanistan is to provide security and stability and they achieve this through working together with the Afghan authorities. Therefore the ISAF forces acting jointly with the Afghan Security forces conduct security and stability operations in the whole country.  ISAF also plays its role in the improvement, supporting and development of Afghanistan army by training, mentoring and equipping it by providing donations. These donations are usually in terms of small arms, ammunition, uniforms, tanks, and helicopters. To the Afghan Police Force, ISF provides advice, information and guidance. It also provides joint patrol, mentoring and training them in specific skills.

Other roles played by ISAF include
Disarming of the illegally armed groups - ISAF is involved and committed in disarming and collecting all the illegal weapons and ammunition that are owned by armed groups or by individuals. These weapons are then destroyed so as to reduce the risks on the citizens, the police and the ISAF personnel.

 Facilitating ammunition depots managements - NATO is involved in enhancing and providing physical security at the ammunition depots and also in the development of proper ammunition management. This project has been commissioned and supported by ISAF contributing nations including Canada.

Providing post operation assistance - this is aimed at providing immediate humanitarian assistance in the aftermath of ISAF military operations. It includes provision of food, medicines, shelter and reconstruction of the entire affected infrastructure.

Reconstruction and development - this is achieved through Provincial Reconstruction Teams. These teams are involved in providing security where reconstruction work is underway.

Providing security to permit reconstruction of the country- the PRTs provide security to national and international constructors involved in rebuilding Afghanistan.

Provide humanitarian assistance - ISAF soldiers are involved in providing humanitarian aid in conjunction with international organizations and the Afghan government to the villagers. The aid is usually in terms of food, water and medication. They also assist them with winter supplies to help them cope with bad weather conditions during winter.

Assist in governance through the Provincial Reconstructions Teams - this is aimed at strengthening the government institutions and structures in order to maintain rule of law, promote human rights and establish good governance.

Countering Narcotics - ISAF helps the Afghan Police and government in countering narcotics through supporting is counter narcotics operations, sharing information, providing logistic support and conducting public campaign. It also assists the Afghan security force in training it on ways of countering narcotics.

Canadas role in Afghanistan
Being part of NATO Canadas troops are part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). Therefore we can conclude that Canada is involved in all the roles listed above. But there are other specific roles that the Canadian government plays directly in Afghanistan. Below are the 6 priorities that Canada has set to achieve in Afghanistan.

Stability - it aims at achieving stability in Afghanistan. It is doing this through conducting training of the Afghan National army. It is also training the police and other government officials.

Development - the Canadian government is aiming at developing Afghanistan by providing and improving the education sector, providing basic services and amenities to the citizens and providing and creating employment opportunities to the unemployed majority.

Security - the Canadian government has committed itself to providing security along the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan. It aims at doing this especially in the Federally Administered Tribal areas that act as the military operation base for the insurgents.

The government is also providing humanitarian aid to refugees who have been displaced by the war.
Canada is committed to promoting democracy by supporting the democratic institutions and processes that have been rendered unstable by the war.

It is targeting at reconciling with former insurgents with an aim of achieving political stability.
The Canadian government has also been involved in what is called signature projects. These projects are based in the Kandahar Province in Afghanistan. These projects undertaken by the Canadian government are as a result of its involvement in the war. They include

Dahla Dam irrigation project - the Canadian government has invested 50 million dollars in this project with an aim of enabling irrigation in the region. This project has created many jobs.
The government has put in 12 million dollars to improve the education sector in the Kandahar region.
It has put another 60 million dollars towards polio eradication in the region. This is aimed at immunization of the many children in the Kandahar region and in Afghanistan as a whole.
Other key roles that Canada has played in Afghanistan include

Has assisted in clearing of around a third of approximately 10 to 15 million mines in the country.
It has loaned money to around 140,000 citizens.

It has helped in training Afghan National Security Force that includes the police and the army.
It is involved in storage and decommissioning of weapons e.g. artillery, tanks and rockets that have been left in Afghanistan and were used in decades of Afghanistan conflict
It is involved in the United Nations Assistance Mission which is a civilian led mission in Afghanistan.

It has initiated a Strategic Advisory Team whose main purpose is to monitor the aspects of the Afghan government on issues concerning defense.

Conclusion
Though there are many critics who oppose the involvement of Canada in the Afghanistan conflict, still its involvement has been of benefit to the Afghanistan nationals. Apart from fighting the insurgents, the Canadian troops are involved in a lot of development activities in the country. Its participation is individually as a country and as a member of NATO. Its main focus is on Kandahar Province and it is trying to keep with the efforts of the international community in getting rid of the insurgents in Afghanistan, maintaining political stability and eliminating international terrorism.

In the contemporary world today, a lot of emphasis is been put on history. Globally, history is being considered a benchmark that can be used to solve the problems of the modern times. Great efforts are taking place from one country to the next to acquire clear and concrete proofs on historical facts. Archeologists in this respect have been at the forefront in developing real and concrete materials to support different ideologies in history. Settlement and mobility archeology are aspects that continue to be studied for their great contribution in interpreting any knowledge in the framework of history. Excavation remains important to this quest for its practical orientation. In this regard, this study will elaborate in depth the role of excavation and how it has been adopted by archeologists as far as settlement and mobility patterns are concerned in interpreting diverse historical phenomena.

Introduction
Archeology today has become a discipline of importance to most scholars. Its value has cut across the world as different civilizations have a keen interest in digging out the past human events so that it might solve mysterious problems challenging human life (Hadlock 1947, pp.46). The aim is to acquire the hidden mysterious or knowledge inherent in our history and somehow provide interpretations that can be useful to the present world. Various designs to acquire this knowledge can be used to gain insight from the historical world. In this study a lot shall be considered as far as excavation is concerned and more so indicate how it has contributed to the interpretation system of most archeologists.

Archeology was recognized during 19th and century though its dynamics were confined to Europe. By late 19th and early 20th centuries, archaeology was established enough to be a formal subject area of study, though its main activities were based in Europe, referred to as cradle of civilization in America and southwestern Asia (Deetz 1968, pp. 268). However, currently archaeology is a diverse discipline practiced world wide with aim of revealing past chronological accounts that bear importance to todays man life. There are several definitions that have been advanced as far as archeology is concerned. They are as follows

Archeology is the science that focuses on the study of past human cultures (US Geologic Survey 2000). It is the branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric people and their cultures (Deetz 1968, pp. 267). The search for, and interpretation of, artifacts, usually recovered from underground such as grave goods, building foundations. The sub-field of anthropology that examines past human culture through the excavation and analysis of material remains (Goodwin 1892, pp.284). Archeology is a branch of anthropology where anthropology has been defined as the social science that examines human culture and experience, past and presents (Goodwin 1892, pp.289).

From the above definitions, it is evident that archeology is more concerned with the life of man in the past (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 543).  In other words, it is an investigation of man in the past and everything else that related to him. In this study due consideration will be accorded to settlement patterns and mobility patterns and how their interpretation can derive from excavation. A series of concrete examples shall also be considered.

Approach to archaeological interpretation
There is a great distinction between the methodology in History and that in Archeology. The historical studies are concerned more with secondary data available such as journals, archives or books, while archaeology concern more with excavations. This distinction is worth noting because it helps us understand the methodology carried out in archeology and more importantly, the source of their information or material of study. In this regard, an archeologist who seeks to do any interpretation cannot go to a library and source it from there as no archeological records can be found in a library. There cannot be an effective interpretation if there are no materials available to the archeologist (Deetz 1968, pp. 268-270). In other words, archeology and its entire methodology cannot take place in a vacuum. Archeological records consist of all the information found in archaeological survey, excavation and laboratory analysis. Archaeological record contain vast information that reveal human past showing evidence of occupied areas by humans showed by human remains obtained in those areas.  The obtained remains are studied by archaeologists through field surveys and laboratory studying of collected remains (Goodwin 1892, pp.284).

Archeology however is faced with many challenges and as noted in International History Project in the sense remains that are historical and evidence to past human societies are disintegrated over time and thus not present within archeological records. Whereas surviving excavated remains have been stored through availability of favorable preservation conditions where they are located by regions atmosphere soil or atmosphere. In regard to preservation, only durable and long lasting materials have made it through years. These materials include potsherds from pottery works, bones, building foundations, tools and teeth. In some special cases, objects with short life span have been found to be preserved. For example, flowers and fabrics were excavated in the celebrated tomb of Tutankhamun where in 1323BC the Egyptian pharaoh was buried. Tutankhamen remains a significant archaeological site even today as this tomb and its treasures were discovered by a British archaeologists Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter in 1922 (Goodwin 1892, pp.284).

Fig. 1 Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen (1343-1325 BC).
It is worth noting that archeological records exist in diverse ways and hence the difference on the method of interpretation. For example, human and animal remains, artifacts, or man-made objects, or plant and provide one mode that archeological records can take. Structural elements, hearths and pits, village sites or cemeteries are another mode that archeological records take. Technology, settlement and subsistence patters and social systems are also another mode of existence that archeological records take. The aspect of technology is understood from the study of shelter, tools and mode of acquiring raw materials utilized to manufacture them. Emphasis on the tools used, traces of former shelters and capturing the source of their raw materials acts as strong archeological evidence. Economic practices especially on how food was gathered and the uses of food resources define the subsistence patterns. Archeologists, therefore, interpret subsistence from the tools used to acquire food, animal and plant remains.

As noted earlier, archeologists system of interpretation will vary due to the material of study. For example, an archeologist who seeks to provide information as far as technology is concerned will dwell much on the tools. Whereas the one who seeks to provide information on settlement patterns will consider getting it based on type and distribution of sites, and which relates to the prehistoric land use practices. From the above example, it can be noted that the two archeologists will concentrate on different material objects and this is what will make their interpretations unique (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 543). By analogy, a person carrying out a study on the effects of smoke on children will dwell much on children psychology and every thing that pertains to the children contrary to the person who sets out to carry out a study on the effects of fire on old people. Their interpretations will vary greatly due to their object of study. However, archeologists share common objectives despite the differences in their interpretations. They help in shaping history from a causal viewpoint and hence harmonize our understanding of the cultural sequences from a local point of view and a regional point of view and in fact, from a global point of view. They add the value of universality to the held cultural sequence. History is playing a great role in the world today in the highly held quest for formation of United Nations bodies as this cannot be meaningful if culture is not well constructed.

Interpretation of settlement orand mobility
To have a good interpretation of settlement andor mobility patterns it is important to establish the existence of the aspects that characterize them. As discussed in approach to archaeological interpretation, technology is characterized by tools, shelters and used so any interpretation regarding technology shall be acquired by examining the tools used and not the food eaten. To give a technology-based interpretation basing on food or clothing will amount to a misinterpretation. Therefore, how do settlement orand mobility manifest itself This is a question that guides the interpretation of settlement patterns within context of archaeological field.

Settlement pattern is defined as human population distribution of across the earth landscape. Therefore for archaeologists to interpret settlement patterns of a given population from different distributions and types of sites can be interpreted basing on excavated prehistoric land use practices. Useful land use key to interpretation can be social systems encompassing religious belief, sociopolitical and institutions of cultures. The mobility orand settlement characteristics in a given social systems is evident by burial practices, decorations, and artifact forms that are indicative of individual status and social roles in the society (Deetz 1968, pp. 268).

In order to interpret settlement and mobility, settlement archaeology is utilized in the sense studies implantation and selection criteria of settlements in the landscape. Moreover, settlement archaeology deals with interrelationships between urban centers and their rural set ups, human settlement impact on the natural environment in the past era. Thus, settlement archaeology aims at reconstructing cultures of ancient urban and their hinterlands, and rural settlements (Goodwin 1892, pp.301).
Settlement archaeological research is by definition a multidisciplinary enterprise requiring expertise from the disciplines of the natural and social sciences, architecture and city planning, as well as specialized techniques related to the retrieval, recording, analysis and data bank management of archaeological data (GIS), site conservation and cultural resource management. Disciplines and interdisciplinary sub-disciplines required in addition to archaeology include geology, environmental geomorphology, archaeozoology, paleontology, paleobotany, archaeometry, ancient history, anthropology, sociology, urban geography, classical architecture and city planning (Settlement Archeology 2007).

Before 1940, archaeologists prepared site locations and site maps, but little attention was paid to settlement patterns. There were few detailed studies emphasizing the disposition of artifacts and ruins over large regions prior to Willeys investigations of Perus Vir Valley. In 1946 and 1953, field surveys were combined with aerial photography to produce detailed maps of all of the archaeological features of the valley. He looked at archeological evidence on a regional scale. He applied this approach in the Vir Valley Project resulting in the publication of prehistoric settlement patters in the Vir Valley (Willey 2009). See below a figure showing a team of archeologist in excavation activities in the Valley of Vir.

Fig 2. Western students Flannery Surette and Christine Boston conduct archeological excavations at Huaca Gallinazo in the Viru Valley, Peru

Settlements reflect not only a societys natural environment and level of technological sophistication, but also the influence of various institutions of social interaction and control on which the culture is maintained (19531). Traditional settlement pattern analysis involves classifying sites within a region using previously established functional categories (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 540).

Katharina (2010, pp. 459) notes that Archaeological settlement surveys, as they were often done in the past, and are still done in many parts of the world, were typically designed to locate sites for excavation. Other forms of survey were designed to locate particular site types pertaining to a particular time period, for example, Iron Age Hill Forts in England. Modern surveys, however, address entire regions and focus on problems of long-term cultural change. Settlement archeology is more inclined to region, in other words it brings forth issues of a regional nature. Settlement archaeology tends to address issues of a regional nature, including such problems as hunter-gatherer subsistence and the emergence of political complexity an observation made by Katharina (2010).
Jean Francois is on record for his efforts to explore Gallinazo Group a 2,000 year old city that has barely been touched by excavators.  At 70 hectares in size, the Gallinazo Group was one of the largest urban centre, in the New World, during its existence. It was built by a people that some archaeologists refer to as the Gallinazo culture.

Fig. 3 This figure shows several mounds of the Gallinazo Group city.
Warren Air Force Base is a historical fact where Native American Families pulled their travois before even the military families pulled their travel trailers there. Natine Americans began camping in the Base areas back many years approximated to be 11,500 years ago during the Paleo-Indian period. The goal of the 1992 fieldwork, then, was to determine the extent of the buried portion of the site to the south expand samples of diagnostics, tools, and subsistence remains and examine geomorphologically similar locales to the west to determine whether 48LA277 is a unique site or whether similar areas along the Crow Creek drainage were used in similar manners (Millaire 2009, pp. 115). The resulting information wasused both in the interpretive center and to enhance the existing knowledge of the prehistory of the area. The artifacts and records are stored and curated at the Bases state-of-the-art curation facility (Melissa 1997, pp. 32). In 1991, a total of 3.5 cubic meters of site 48LA277 was excavated within five excavation units. Within these units, six fire pits were found and four totally excavated. The fire pits yielded radiocarbon dates, pollen, and macrobotanical specimens, as well as lithic and faunal materials. The excavations outside the fire pits also yielded cultural remains, resulting in a total of 108 lots of faunal material, 227 pieces of lithic material, and two ceramic sherds. This testing suggested that much more cultural material was present than was originally thought (Melissa 1997, pp. 21). The interpretations out of the knowledge acquired through the above mentioned exercise helps to determine when the land-use patterns began and how they varied overtime.

Another excavation activity was carried out at Golden rock and Smoke Alley. The only way to get an idea of the structure of a settlement is by using an excavation technique with large-size pits. Such methods were used at the Golden Rock and Smoke Alley sites. An essentially uninterrupted area of 3300 m2 was excavated in the former site only less than 10 had to remain unexcavated between the large excavation pits.It is evident those large-scale excavations, and a detailed analysis of all features (discolorations that are the result of Indian activities), are necessary to obtain basic data for the archaeology of the Caribbean at the lowest level that of the individual structure, and that of the settlement. Such data yield detailed information on the prehistoric Caribbean villages, and that means on the communities that lived in these villages (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998). The GR-1 excavations have provided many new, and partially unique, data on the structure of a Saladoid settlement. Proof was found that middens have, in a geographical (spatial) perspective, a direct relationship with houses (living areas). The houses are characterized by a round shape, and strong, vertical supporting posts which were founded several meters deep in the ground (Archeologisch Museum Aruba cited by Millaire 2009, pp. 106).

Fig. 4One of the large postholes of the Maloca
There is no doubt that protein was primarily procured from marine resources the archaeological record and the isotope analyses of human bone are in agreement here. Meat from iguanas, agutis, rice-rats, birds, and landcrabs offered, without doubt, a welcome change to the usual meat intake, which consisted of fish and shellfish. A probable deficiency in the archaeological record (the lack of a representative number of conch, Strombus gigas) prevents an estimation of the relative importance of the latter food sources fish may or may not have been a more important protein supplier than shellfish. The isotope analyses favor an important position for shellfish, but as yet it is impossible to come to pertinent conclusions. Shellfish in large quantities were probably available from the sandy flats in front of the beaches (Strombus gigas), and from the rocky shores (Cittarium pica), on both the windward and leeward sides of the island (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998). In the case of Smoke Alley it was noted that Excavation of five 1 m test pits established that the midden was approximately 10 x 10 meters in size. Excavation of four large machine-made (255 m, pits resulted in the discovery of 80 features. Sixty-five of them proved to be postholes. Twelve postholes belong to one slightly oval 10-meter diameter house, 7 others belong to a round 8-meter diameter house (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998, cited by Trigger 1968, p. 36)

A study was conducted in medieval mound in Tuscany, Italy by the Laboratory for Landscape Archeology and remote sensing, University of Siena research team during aerial prospection in spring 2005. Analysis of the aerial photographs allowed interpretation of the site as a triple-ditched enclosure. During subsequent field-walking survey a number of archaeological artifacts were collected and mapped. Differential global positioning system (DGPS) survey confirmed the morphological pattern of the site, which seems to represent a survival of the Early Medieval Age settlement pattern on the coastal plain (Millaire 2009, pp. 109). The field-walking and DGPS surveys were followed by a programme of geophysical survey combining three different methods differential magnetics (Overhauser probe), ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and Automatic Resistivity Profiler (Millaire 2009, pp. 106). Finally, three sample areas were excavated, mainly to test the evidence collected previously. The excavation data - ditches, post-holes, domestic pottery, animal bones, and wall remains - support the interpretation of the site as the first earth-and-timber castle mound, or motte, to be identified in Tuscany (Wiley 2009).

Recent archaeological excavations at Vindolanda, Northumberland and at York have uncovered considerable quantities of bryophytic material. The mosses are considered here not in terms of their value to the archaeologist as indicators of prevailing environmental conditions but from an ethnological viewpoint. There is strong reason to believe that the mosses at both sites were deliberately harvested in large quantities and employed mainly for their bedding, packing, insulatory and absorbent qualities (Seaward  Williams 1976). Large-scale excavations took place in the site of Inamgaon in Western India to unravel in order to acquire some information about the culture of the Chalcolithic farmers. Excavations were carried out twelve seasons (1969-1982). The main objective in undertaking large-scale excavations at Inamgaon was to obtain detailed knowledge of material culture of the Chalcolithic farmers (Sheena 1999).

Fig. 5 At Inamgaon site, the dried up river Ghod
Mobility, concerns the archaeological excavations regarding hunter-gatherer society which was their primary method of obtaining subsistence for their family by directly procuring edible animals and plants from the wild without intent of domestication. Because of difficulties accrued from hunting historically, the hunter-gatherers usually obtained 80 of their substance from gathering than hunting. Kelly (1983, pp. 279) states that hunter-gatherers society is characterized by egalitarianism because mobility requires minimal material possessions for society. Therefore, interpretation can be based minimal structural constructions, and remains found as there were no surplus resources for accumulation by any individual member. An example of excavation on mobility is cited in Australia by Chase (1989, p. 46) is represented below.

Fig.6 19th Century Indigenous Australian encampment engraving
Moreover, Hoffman (1955, p. 45) developed a modern comprehensive model relying on ethnohistoric sources but sensitive to aboriginal culture changes. Hoffmans comprehensive model is simple cyclical model representing late prehistoric era featuring inland hunting during winter and coastal habitation during summer with scarce resources. The representation was represented on a circular chart that showed flora and fauna availability for each season, resource exploitation areas, and social groupings size.

Conclusion
From our study, we can see that excavation plays a very big role in understanding history. It offers credibility to theoretical knowledge we have as far as different aspects of our historical knowledge are concerned. In deed, settlement and mobility will make little sense if it is not backed by some concrete evidence. Whenever archeologists set out to carry out some findings, excavation is a major factor just as science requires laboratory test. We know that science can only develop sound theories after empirical verifications done in the laboratory. We can argue on the same note that archeologists can develop sound knowledge after an excavation process. Though excavation can be considered risky especially when carried out in places that are unsafe, for example, in the desert, forests, secluded places and even tombs the society should recognize it as a value. Today, so many discoveries have been made due to the courageous efforts of the archeologist and in deed shaping the history and adding more substance to it. We cannot dispute that knowledge without concrete evidence is null and void. In modern world people need facts to support what they would consider knowledge.

For my term project, I have chosen to write about the development if airplanes during the first and the second world wars. The paper shall trace the history of airplanes through extensive and intensive research from relevant sources such as books and published articles that will support my ideas. In doing so, I shall also seek to apply research strategies necessary in writing a quality term paper. To guide this project will be a research question of which, throughout the paper, I will seek to answer and support my views by use of relevant sources.

In my paper, the main question to be addressed will also be split into simpler questions in order to enhance relevance and clarity. For instance, I will seek to show how the change in airplane technology and development has impacted on peoples lives differently over time. This will involve researching on all the ways through history that the airplane has been used by man. Most notably, airplanes have been utilized best in war and for transportation purposes hence the paper will give weight to these two areas.

The paper will also be keen to trace the history of airplanes from the time of invention by the Wright brothers up to World War II. The different models and features of airplanes back then will be discussed more so highlighting the differences between the airplanes used in the World War I and World War II in order to identify the implication of the development and technology of airplanes on humanity. One thing the paper will not ignore is the fact that airplanes have developed differently more in Europe and the US. Germany is a major player this industry in Europe and was heavily involved in both world wars hence its history in airplane making is important to this paper. Specifically, I will highlight how the two regions have handled the challenges in airplane design and how their environment and needs influenced airplane design.

Throughout this paper, the delivery of the ideas has to be precise and supported by relevant sources to gain credibility. According to book the Craft of Research, Booth, Colomb and Williams (2008) say that direct quotataions from sources are part of writing style and add to the prose of the text if used well.

In conclusion, my paper will wrap all the ideas presented in the body and connect these to the main research question stated at the beginning of the paper. A well concluded paper shows that the writer is well aware of the implications of the ideas presented in the paper on his audience.

Why did not more countries behave like Denmark towards their Jewish population during World War

The saving of the Jews in Denmark came about for the duration of Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark throughout World War II. After Hitler prearranged with the intention of Danish Jews be detained and expatriated on 12 October 1943, a lot of Danes participated in a cooperative effort to relinquish the approximately 8,000 Jews of Denmark by means of sea to close proximity impartial Sweden. The let go permitted the enormous greater part of Denmarks Jewish inhabitants to stay away from incarceration by the Nazis and is well thought-out to be one of the biggest procedures of communal opposition to authoritarianism and oppression in the states taken by Nazi Germany. As a consequence of the let go and Danish intervention on behalf of the Danish Jews who were extradited to Theresienstadt shipment base camp in Bohemia, Denmarks Jewish inhabitants endured the Holocaust. Among the reasons for saving the Danish Jews was the Denmarks Jewish inhabitants had extendedly been nearly entirely incorporated into Danish culture, and a few component of the little Jewish population had ascended to reputation, e.g. Nobel Prize winner Niels Bohr. As a result, nearly every of the Danes professed the Nazis stroke in opposition to Denmarks Jews like an offense to every Danes, thus came together to the defense of their nations resident.

Some countries never saved their Jewish citizens because of the fear of the Nazis. The Nazi invasion of Eastern Europe was extra atrocious and unsympathetic than Western Europe. This was as a result of Nazis ideology that viewed the Nazi-occupied states according to their ethnic class. Nazi misinformation observed the Eastern Europeans as ethnically substandard to Aryan Germans whereas the people of Western countries like Poland were Nazi-occupied such that those found concealing and defending Jews were chastised by being killed. The rule of Nazi in Poland authorized death not merely for the individuals or groups occupied in saving and offering security, but for affiliate of their relatives too. Detention camps were erected at designated places for Poles on top of Jews. Poles along with Jews were racially purified starting with some regions of Western Poland which had great racial German inhabitants. In contrast to other regions, the invasion of Denmark, by assessment, was moderately compassionate. No anti-Jewish decrees were initiated, there was no ghetto creation, and moreover no detention camps were built. Food was by no means as ruthlessly measured, compared to Poland together with supplementary Eastern European nations. The capability of citizens in the broad populace to help protect and rescue Jews at their peril was powerfully dependent on the brutality and environment of the invasion. The largest part of Denmarks Jews was salvaged, while most of Polands Jews were exterminated and wiped out.

There were a lot of people who were terrified to help. Nevertheless, on occasions, citizens botched to take action not for the reason that they were self-centered or self engrossed, but since they did not encompass thoughts, inventiveness, endeavor, or general intelligence, or their unpreparedness plus they had no task leaders. The nearer a Nazi invaded nation was to an impartial country or a state that was not caught up in the conflict, the simpler it was for the fatalities to run away to protection, although the unbiased or un-invaded nation had to be ready to allow immigrants in. The get away course in addition had to be moderately gratis of obstruction and dangers that hinder running away. Among the unbiased impartial countries during World War II included Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal.

The Japanese military perception that they were immune from any attack changed after the Doolittle attack. This created the need to improve their defense perimeters and extend eastwards. Midway, which is a small island became their target. The island was about six hundred miles away from the American island, Hawaii and therefore the approaching Japanese military attracted the attention of the American military officials. While the Japanese were determined to win the battle at Midway and threw all their military resources into the battle, the United States military intelligence was aware of their plans. In the tiny island, the United States military had little military hardware. They had three aircraft carriers and 14 destroyers as compared to the approaching Japanese fleet which had six aircraft carriers and over fifty destroyers.

The United States military intelligence was lucky to have discovered the approaching fleet and take necessary measures before the Japanese attacked. The United States military arranged for backups and air attacks quickly enough before the Japanese fleet reached Midway Island. The United States military bombed the fleet in the midmorning hours of 4th June 1942 and within a very short time, they had destroyed three of the six carriers. One of the carriers, Hiryu, was able to resist the attack and managed to sink the Yorktown. However, the carrier was traced in the afternoon by the American aircrafts and was significantly damaged. The next day, the United States aircraft and carriers went after the retreating Japanese fleets. They were able to damage two cruisers seriously although they were not destroyed completely.  

The United States commanders had acted swiftly to defend the island by increasing the number of men and military hardware because a defeat at Midway threatened the Americans especially Hawaii Island. On the other hand, the Japanese commanders were planning the biggest attack since the beginning of the war. The Japanese believed that if they were able to defeat the Americans in the pacific and possible sink all their fleets, the fate of the war would be decided.

Despite the big gains to the Japanese and their allies in the war, if they were able to defeat the Americans in the pacific, the Japanese were not aware that the United States military intelligence was breaking their codes as they planned to invade Midway. Although the US naval intelligence was aware of the planned invasion since the Pearl Harbor attack, they had limited information on the attack and did not know the target. The defeat of the Japanese at the Midway was a big step backwards in their bid to control the pacific waters. The commander Yamamito admitted that he had made a big mistake in planning the attack and assigning a lot of resources to the operation. He apologized to the Japanese government through the Emperor and resigned from his duties. However, the defeat was kept as a secret by the government and the public had no idea of the battle. The injured soldiers were secretly sneaked into the military hospitals.

The Japanese plan to gain control over the pacific by defeating the Americans is considered by many historian as a major cause of failure in the Second World War. The battle of Midway Island is one of the most significant attempts by the Japanese to undermine the United States powers in the pacific.

Many people have cited the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife on 28th June 1914 in Bosnian by a Serbian nationalist triggered the World War I (Heyman, 1997). This provoked a series of war declaration between countries leading to the ultimate entry into the World War I. however this can only be seen as the immediate reason behind the war. There are other deep rooted reasons such as imperialism, nationalism and militarism that where quite common during those days. In this essay, the author gives a critical discussion on the underlying reasons that led to the declaration of the First World War.

First, the First World War was caused by imperialism. This practice involves the expansion of power control and wealth by a nation through the acquisition of new territories. Imperialism is seen as the cause of the World War I due to the territorial control conflicts that existed among Germany, Britain and France to own African and some Asian nations (Henig, 2001).  With increased desire to acquire more raw materials for their industries while expanding their empires, European nation were increasingly engaged in confrontations, a factor which triggered the world to enter into the First World War

Another cited reason for the First World War was the many alliance agreements among nations for mutual defense partnerships (Heyman, 1997). Because of the biding nature of these agreements, allies were bound to engage in war to save their partners. Some of this agreement included Russia and Serbia, Japan and Britain, Germany and Austria-Hungary, and France and Russia among others. From the sequence of the way to the First World War, Austria-Hungary declared war to Serbia, leading to Russias involvement to defend Serbia (Heyman, 1997). Due to the agreement between Austria-Hungary and Germany, Germany decided to attack Russia. This serial increase in conflicts led to the declaration of the WWI.

Nationalism attitude by nations also factored in causing the First World War (Henig, 2001). War is mainly caused by the desire by nations to prove their dominance and power over others. WWI began as a conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary due to Serbias desire to take control of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austria-Hungary (Henig, 2001). Still on nationalism, the divisions that were evident among Europe concerning the Serbia and Austria-Hungary war can only be attributed to the desire of nations to gain respect through power dominance thus contradicting the principles of dialogue in conflict resolution.

The start of the WWI was further triggered by militarism among nation (Henig, 2001). According to available historical information, the beginning of the 20th century was marked with army racing among nations. By mid 1910s both Germany and Britain had heavily invested in their navies in a struggle for military power supremacy. Still, Germany had engaged Russia on military establishment competition (Henig, 2001). Therefore, these military army races among powerful nations of the time forced the nations to enter into the war.

The last cause is the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife on 28th June 1914 and how it led into the World War I. Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian in protect of Austria-Hungarys presence in Bosnia. Austria-Hungary nation responded to the assassination by declaring war over Serbia (Heyman, 1997). This was followed by the involvement of other nations based of mutual defense agreements. Such increasing involvements by nations allied to both Austria-Hungary and Serbia coupled with the other factor discussed above thus forced the world to enter into the World War I.

Of all the radical changes that swept across the European continent during the 18th and 19th century, the most influential of all could be said to be the epistemological transformation which was nurtured by emergence of the scientific revolution. This revolution was associated with the radical emergence of technological changes coupled with the scientific discoveries of the natural sciences (Morgan, 2000).

 In general, scientific revolution was in reality perceived as a series of changes which occurred and shaped the structure of the European thoughts by clearing mental doubts and dissonance about the world, through presenting sensory and empirical verifications about the world and the universe (Peter, 1998). Consequently, scientific revolution brought different divisions of phenomena by categorizing events into different separate sciences which further created an image in the minds of mankind that the world could be meant to function like a machine. These changes began to transform human experiences almost in all major spheres of life.

The emergence of scientific revolution in Europe had diverse and rather radical transformations which swayed across the European continent. The term itself  scientific revolution was  perceived as a very great and rather significant enlightenment to the European  world and it spearheaded  two very interrelated and sequential kind of intellectual movements and perception of the Europeans about the world around them.

These great intellectual movements were significantly witnessed between the years 1500s to 1800s (Baker, 2002). During this great period the European continent was in a state of distraught due to a variety of various factors such as economic crisis, social and religious challenges which gradually evolved chaos among the European citizens.

From an economic perspective, industrial revolution in Europe introduced a new age of economic prosperity as a result of increased and improved international trade. By and large, scientific revolution further opened the European minds and way of thinking such that they got a wider view of looking at the world in the search for truth and facts about the nature human existence and the world around them.

This benefited many such that they got an opportunity in which they could now question the religious teachings which were roaming across the European continent by giving more and more tangible and rather justifiable facts about the understanding of the universe and the forces which govern it (Morgan, 2000). Additionally, the period further transformed lives of people from individuals to groups by establishing social classes which totally shaped the life in general for all European citizens.
 By the 17th century,  the European continent was undergoing a period of economic turmoil and instability  due to hiked profits from the sale of the precious mental in the world market, which further caused inflation and pushed the monarchies to also increase  the general taxation (Baker, 2002). This inflation caused uproar among the lower social classes who earned very little pay and they could not stand the high tax rates. But, the ant vent of the scientific revolution was perceived as a revelation of hope which led to development and emergence of world trade.

Economic improvements were witnessed by a greater magnitude with increased involvement in world trade which later led to an even distribution of wealth and a greater understanding of other foreign cultures (Shapin, 1998). By extension, philosophical and scientific knowledge become more prominent among the many people including the third class population through the introduction of inexpensive printing which was done in lager scale.

Major scientific discoveries were witnessed on the onset of the 17th century.  For instance, the scientific invention which was advanced by Isaac Newton, Galileo Galiley and others who proved to the world that  the earth was not actually the center of the great universe, an invention which challenged the religious indoctrinations by then,  as the only major sources scientific knowledge.
 Galileo Galiley also made it clear that the universe was not governed by abstract supernatural forces as religion had implanted in their mind, but it was composed and governed by natural laws which could rationally and easily be understood and comprehended (Baker, 2002). Above all, another very radical shift of thought was observed in the year 1517, at the face of industrial revolution when Martin Luther, staged a very success protest against the domination of the Roman church in Europe.
This protest spearheaded by Luther against the church marked a very significant beginning on the decline of power vested upon the church which had dominated peoples minds on the inquiry about the natural world (Shapin, 1998). Thus, the church reformation worked towards abolishing and eliminating the control of the church over the European intellectuals and this formed a very significant milestone towards the secularization of the science in Europe.

Although it is believed that the process of scientific development was a comprehensive one, over a course of several centuries, Copernicus, is believed to be the very first person to present the first significant break of the medieval knowledge and science. In the year 1543, Copernicus published his very first volume on the revolution of heavenly spheres.

In this discourse, Copernicus explained and described his theory of heliocentrism, which disapproved the Ptolemaic notion which had being reinforced by the church that the earth was the center of the great  universe (Morgan, 2000). Copernicus again promoted and spearheaded the concept that the earth revolves round the sun through making very careful observations of natural occurrences and continued to challenge the Christian worldview about the truth of existence and nature.

 It is from the notion of the heliocentric theory that was advanced by Copernicus, which posed a greater challenge to the European, that science began to receive world wild acceptance through the wide distribution of information which was enhanced by the adoption of new, cheap and accurate printing press and duplicating technology.

 The age of enlightenment and the evolution of the scientific age was a marked period of radical economic, social and religious advancements which enhanced the well being of individuals in Europe. It further transformed the economic systems of the Europeans to capitalist nationalistic economic systems (Peter, 1998). The  new  scientific revelation which was being preached by the scientists become too common and it was received with open hand by the majority of the population who had failed to make sense out of the ideological messages preached by the church which seemed to have no substantial evidence.

As result there was a growing concern and interest for having more scientific experimentations and instruments among the popular classes.  Information about this kind of enlightenment grew faster and it was accelerated by the invention of large scale printing devices and machinery which was less expensive.

Thus, presence of dense print media which published articles, speeches and debates allowing the third class population to read and be educated about the new enlightenment made it easier to spread the message about scientific revolution and the facts about the nature of the earth and the universe (Hall, 1999). These teachings were further accompanied by relevant facts and proofs that had been made by several people such as Isaac Newton, Galileo, Copernicus and the like.

The speculations of the church slowly declined as the Europeans gained the believe that each and every person had a tremendous capability which could be achieved by  his own through taking critical analysis of the world and assessing the matter which it is made up of (Baker, 2002).  In order to override the religious biasness established by the church against all the other sources of knowledge, scientists of the day decided to publish their findings and discoveries. Some of these people included scholars like Galileo Galiley who was actually  forced pushed to renounce his discoveries.

In conclusion it became very apparent that the impact of scientific revolution on the third class population had made radical effects which could be observed creating a new kind of enlightenment by making them come even more skeptical of religion and its   ideologies. People all across Europe become very optimistic about possibilities of individual and personal achievements and advancements in the new scientific age. This enlightenment was amicably welcomed with open arms by the majority of the population who further felt that they were no longer restricted to church and they could express their views and beliefs in an open forum.

This assessment will ask you to do several things
1. Readview a set of primary sources, including art works, related to this historical period
2. Draft a thesis based on the full set of primary sources
3. Articulate a cause or consequence of the event represented by the sources
4. Describe one historical actor involved in this event and explain his or her significance in this event.

NOTE You should bring in any information that youve learned about the historical periodtopic from lecture, textbook, primary source documents, films and other sources.

1. Readview the attached set of primary sources, including the art works

2. Draft a thesis based on the full set of primary sources
A thesis is a statement that you would prove in a paper. It should have a point of view, stating a viewpoint that would be supported by the sources you have read and viewed. It should only be a sentence or two.

Draft your thesis here

The Salem Witch Trials in the Religious Context The witch hunt as a culmination of religious extremism and was used to undermine and persecute women in general as unfit and unclean in a patriarchal church ideology.

In total, more women were accused of witchcraft than men. The numbers would show, including the records of the investigations that women were more susceptible to be charged of witchcraft than men, and a s a religious rule, women were required more fervor, dedication, and even cleansing rituals as they are considered more impure than men. This is a reflection of the patriarchal nature of religion.

3. Articulate a cause or consequence of the event represented by the sources
Name and describe one cause or consequence of an event discussed in these sources

The religious context of the Salem Witch Trials must be viewed together with the historical and Socio-political context of the time. As a religious group, the Puritans during the 17th century were a group that sprang up in opposition to the English Church. They had many gripes, including the Book of Common prayers, ritualistic and ceremonial oppositions to the use of vestments, sacramental and other religious dissention. Massachusetts  was a colony heavily influenced and  populated by Puritans thus shaping the politico-theological environment at that period. This is in addition to the picture shown how a town or council could band together and gang up on a suspected or  charged witch, at that time, with perhaps, a staged or choreographed course of action, leading to the indictment and sending to the galleys or the stake of anyone who goes against popular belief. The picture shows a  trial, whereupon, on the floor, a writhing victim points at her tormentor, while the whole communityresponds in an uproar to declare the woman guilty of the charge of witchcraft and devil worship.

4. Describe one historical actor involved in this event and explain his or her significance in this event.
Name one person involved in this event.  Why was that person significant

Historical accounts point to Sarah Good as the first woman to face the inquisition and be declared as guilty of witchcraft. She was said to have vexed and caused the sufferings of the Parris children, niece and daughter of a influential church leader, the Rev. Samuel Parris. Interestingly, as co-accused, Sarah Osborne and Tituba were also accused. It could be said that the character sketches of the three women were enough to make them scapegoats or what would be called as the usual suspects. Sarah Goodman was a homeless woman, begging for food and shelter from her neighbors and the community, while Sarah Osborne had sexual relations with her servant, and was amiss in attending church services. As for Tituba, she was a slave of tribal ethnicity and was far from being Puritan. These, obviously, was enough to make them obvious targets for the religious hysteria and phobia. Sarah Goodman was significant since she was the first among many to follow who was accused and brought to the council. Her recorded responses also shed light to how a  simple jealousy or misunderstanding could have led to a mass murder of a lot of people later on.

Now, I having for some time before, attended the work of the ministry in that village, the report of those great afflictions came quickly to my notice....My concern was augmented when it was reported, at an examination of a person suspected for witchcraft, that my wife and daughter, who died three years before, were sent out of the world under the malicious operations of the eternal powers....
1. One or two of the first that were afflicted, complaining of unusual illness....2. They were oftentimes very stupid in their fits, and could neither hear nor understand....5. They affirmed that they saw the ghosts of several departed persons....6. Persecution by the dragons of Hell, the persons afflicted were harassed at such a dreadful rate, to write their names in a devil book....8. Sundry pins have been taken out of the wrists and arms of the afflicted and one in time of examination of a suspected person, had a pin run through both her upper and lower lip when she was called upon to speak....13. Sometimes in their fits, they have had their tongues drawn out of their mouths to a fearful length, their heads turned very much over their shoulders and had their arms and legs etc. wrested, as if they were quite dislocated, the blood hath gushed plentifully out of their mouths, for a considerable time together....

(H) Sarah Good what evil spirit have you familiarity with(G) None.(H) Have you made no contract with the devilGood answered no.(H) Why do you hurt these children(G) I do not hurt them. I scorn it.(H) Who do you employ then to do it(G) I employ no body(H) What creature do you employ then(G) no creature but I am falsely accused....(H) desired the afflicted children all of them to look upon her and see if this were the person that had hurt them and so they all did look upon her, and said this was one of the persons that did torment them--presently they were all tormented.(H) Sarah Good do you not see now what you have done, why do you not tell us the truth, why do you thus torment these poor children(G) I do not torment them....(H) how came they thus tormented(G) what do I know you bring others here and now you charge me with it....(H) who was it then that tormented the children(G) it was Sarah Osborne.(H) What is it you say when you go muttering away from persons houses(G) if I must tell I will tell.(H) do tell us then(G) if I must tell, I will tell it, it is the commandments. I may say my commandments I hope....

Her answers were in a very wicked spiteful manner. Reflecting and retorting against the authority with base and abusive words and many lies she was taken in it was here said that her husband had said that he was afraid that she either was a witch or could be one very quickly.

In the early eighteenth century, Europe was under the communistic type of government. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the communism system was slowly outdone and replaced with capitalism, a process that incurred great industrial revolution all over Europe. However, this involved a series of transformations. Industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines driven by the use of power in development. This however started in England and turned Europe as a whole from an agricultural based society into an industry dependent society.

 Large group of people left the farming practice and migrated to the towns and cities as wage earners and this was the driving force of industrial revolution.

 The social life greatly changed with capitalism where cities were expanding and social economic classes developing leading to the growth in the population and urbanization. The European population by 1850 had doubled in reference to 1750. This population growth resulted due to many factors including the reduction in the death rate all over the continent the vulnerability to disease as well as the occurrence had reduced and also reduction of war, which reduced the number of death the amount of food supply increased reducing malnutrition and increasing disease resistance. (William 518)

There was a rapid growth in the number of cities and towns. This increased industrialization as more industries were situated in these towns. The towns were major supplies of the steam engine and the where manufacturing plants were situated, and there was plenty of labor through rural urban migration to the towns in search of work. For example the cities and towns in Britain grew expeditiously and by 1850 about half of the population were residing in cities and towns.  The living conditions of the people in most of the industrious town were miserable. There was presence of open sewers and lack of good drainage channels that led to the stagnation of sewer water both from animal and human waste. The living rooms for the workers were very small and the workers used to experience fever due to the congestion. (William 519)

The social economic class of the workers working in the different levels of employment developed. There was a class for the middle class workers in the industrial sector. This was a class for the workers in the construction department, those that were involved in the purchasing of machines and equipment and those that were doing the marketing. This group of people was working hard to join the elite class or reduce the division between them. Then there was the industrial working class that worked under total pressure including working six days a week for like twelve hours every day. The lunch break was worth half an hour and their job was unsecured. This was more so in the mining industry and the cotton mills. There were also poor working conditions and this at times led to death of the workers. (William 519)

Then came the rapid growth of industries and new products emerged in the industry. Iron took over steel and this allowed the construction of smaller, lighter and even faster machines. The source of energy was transformed and electricity took over coal. This source of energy could be transformed into many other energy forms easily. There was a major revolution in the communication industry through the inventing of the radio waves and the telephone means of communication. This later led to the development of the auto mobiles. (William 543)

The demand for manufactured goods was high during this era and this led to rapid industrial growth. The wages for the workers was increased and the prices of finished products reduced too. This was due to reduced transport cost.

The working class later started their parties.  These socialist parties were fighting to improve the working conditions for the workers. Through strong defense by the government, the parties later merged and formed a trade union that empowered them to vote and helped achieve democracy. As the economy accelerated forward, this led to the formation of the mass society. This helped the lower social class people to attain education, the right to vote and the improvement of their living standards. (William 547).

In the farming industry, agricultural revolution took place which led to the increase in production, conversion to large scale farming as opposed to small scale farming and efficiency in the farming practices. This led to increased food production and more profits to the land owners.

The systematic interaction of the political and economic reforms was a complication occurrence. The progress in both areas is not mutually inclusive of the other but they are mutually reinforcing.  Capitalism led to the growth of the private markets and the flow of money which in turn resulted to the growth of the middle class group. The middle class were then in a position to generate and acquire money from the central government authority.  As a result, this resulted into democracy generation that increased gradually. There was also the political transformation including the French Revolution that totally changed the nature of the government and increased democracy. (Laura 24)
One of the consequences of industrialization was urbanization. Urbanization led to more demand for labor to work in the industrial towns.  This led to the intense emigration to the cities and the rapid growth of the cities in size. There is the resultant capital flow and labor even to distant countries. This resulted to growth of communities that are similar very rapidly, across the seas and characterized the economic system. There was growth in population as well as wealth, but the wealth was not distributed proportionally as per the effort in the population applies in production where the two turned exclusive of each other and led to the emerging of the social classes.  (Paul 27)
 The rise in efficiency impacted negatively to human labor. This is by reducing the number of jobs available and also the technical skills as the companies adopted the technology changes. The industrial revolution led to the division of labor. The changes in civilization and the exchanges resulting from revolution led to opening of more channels of production and this in turn leads to the elaboration and the division of labor. As a result there is narrowing o production areas in the areas of trading.

Industrial revolution led to the administrative management. This is the decision making body in an organization that implements the information infrastructure between the organization and the contact of the market. This consequence has led to the development of the information structure and information economy and the formal and programmed decision making and the control of organizations and all the working in the society. (Paul 147)

Industrialization speeded up the rate of processing materials to a level where human control is not possible. This led to increased dependency on the managerial techniques and information and communication technologies through the use of programmed decisions for the control of the large scale operations. Industrialization called for the abundance of source of energy to be used in the running of the machine where wood fuel that was commonly used could not sufficiently supply. This led to the mining of coal at first and later the development and generation of electricity.

In conclusion, industrialization and capitalism In Europe had both positive and negative impacts to the social and economy life to the society. Some of the sectors including agriculture incurred deficiency in labor and food crisis occurred as more people migrated to the cities. Industrialization led to the growth of nationalism and increase in wages thus availability of money to spend on food and other family expenses. The industrial revolution is a change that is far from clarity since it is replicated in the todays society.

We began by studying the world in the 1780s we conclude by glancing at it 50 years later.  
Great strides had been achieved in science, industry and commerce, and consequently man faced a period of material improvement.

World population, industrial production and commerce multiplied.
Knowledge had become widespread, and science had vastly improved Mans way of life.
In contrast, the world had achieved only moderate strides politically and socially.  
Slavery and serfdom, though diminished worldwide, actually increased in their bulwarks.
The middle and working classes have increased steadily but slowly in number,
Landed aristocrats, though more dependent on the middle class, retain their social status.
Monarchy continues to be accepted as the common mode of government.
 Still, significant changes had been made, and after 1830 generally increased in momentum.
The 1830 revolutions, while compromising with the old system, introduced enough changes as to decisively favor the rise of the middle classes.

Radical democracy was gaining ground.
Europe, especially Britain, gained global supremacy, but observers can already see the decline, and that the future would soon be contested by powers such as USA and Russia.
The world of the 1840s was out of balance, and though everyone was sure that change was impending, no one could predict that it would explode to social revolution.
The laboring class had gained purpose, and power in their collective organization
The inflexibility of the old regimes turned even minor frictions into great cracks.
The weakening of the old system also coincided with a great depression, which stoked the ire of the already discontented masses.

The article centres around the climate of British public opinion during the American Civil War, specifically how it came about that the British ended up supporting the North and how the Emancipation Proclamation factored into this choice. The British public opinion was neither steady nor unanimous during the Civil War, as the article enumerates the different events and personas that swayed and divided British support. The Emancipation Proclamation, though not immediately accepted, once proved sincere made the Civil War into an unquestionable issue of slavery thus solidifying the choice to support the Union over the Confederacy.

The article first lays out the initial division of public opinion, between the British Liberals and Conservatives. Support lay mostly with the North, as the Southerners were considered barbarous due to their maintenance of slavery, and even before the war this issue led many Britons to believe that slavery would inevitably separate the North and South. The article then describes how the support changed in favour of the Confederacy after the initial aggressive campaign and the failure of such a move as the Confederates won the first battles. This direction of opinion was heightened during the event of the Trent Affair, which was deemed an insult to the British since the Trent was a British vessel. Further aggravating the cause of British Union supporters was the emergence of the Morill Tariff, reminding Britons of what had been an economically advantageous relationship with the South and painting the Union as arrogant and tyrannical. The most convincing argument against the Union though, were not only the independency propaganda the Confederates generated around this time, but Lincolns downright denial that emancipation was an aim in the war during his March 1861 inaugural address. The article explains the domestic reasons for this disavowal though, but these reasons seemed to have been overcome as the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in September 1962. The Proclamation was initially regarded with suspicion though, and seen as a last-ditch effort to garner foreign support in a losing war, but many attested to its sincerity. Choosing a side to support in the Civil War then became a question of pro or anti-slavery, thus effectively throwing out the Confederacys initially claimed cause of wanting independence.

Contrary to the trend of most historical discussions on the Civil War, the author takes on a novel approach by dissecting the effect of the events on an outside perspective. Britain then was still considered an influential power over the States and its choice of who to support in a civil war could tip the balance, this is usually all but forgotten in Civil War recollections. The Confederacy actively vying for British public opinion to recognize its independence also attests to the influence of Britain at the time. The story-telling tone of the article as it chronicled the back and forth changes in favour, makes the article an interesting read. The events are very detailed, and the quotations provided give clear insight into the mindsets of people of the time from the skilfully-weaved pro-Confederate arguments of Spence, to the racist quotations from Union soldiers, to the short snarky poems of the magazine Punch. A few quotations only account for the medias opinion though, and not the majority of the British publics. A few questions also linger, such as how the racism of the Union soldiers was overcome for them to continue fighting after the Proclamation. Overall though, the writer builds a thoroughly convincing, interesting, and well-referenced history. And the abrupt assertion of the last sentence, though a stark contrast to the easy flow of the rest of the article, effectively leaves the reader nodding in agreement.

The First World War A View of the Trenches
A gentleman of pure heart witnessed the great tragedy of 1914. I was having a fantastic dinner with a friend at a local but decent restaurant. Then the imperial carriage paraded in the street. There, I saw Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne, with his consort waving to the crowd. Suddenly, a man fired a couple of shots, instantly killing the archduke and his consort. The man was a Serbian nationalist, who apparently, was hired by the Serbian premier. Late at night, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire demanded territorial and financial concessions from Serbia.

After three days, the Russians mobilized. Germany also mobilized in support of Austria-Hungary. I, myself, was aware that war with Russia would bring Britain and France in support of Serbia. My fears came true when Germany invaded Belgium, a neutral country. Britain and France declared war on Germany. The world was at war. Being a member of Red Cross International, I volunteered to work in the Western Front.

After arriving at Sedan, France, I began to evaluate the conditions of soldiers (both German and French alike) in the trenches. Soldiers had a maximum sleep of 3 hours a day. Food was scarce as well as medicine and ammunition. On the 16th of June 1916, French artillery pounded the German lines. A massive allied offensive was launched against German defensive positions. The Germans repulsed the attack with massive artillery bombardments. At Ypres, the Germans launched a powerful strike of chemical bombs. The sight was terrifying. I saw soldiers blinded by the toxic gases soldiers cutting their arms out of pain and soldiers brushing in mud to breath. It was indeed a terrible sight. The trenches were a symbol of bloodbath, of shameless butchery, and disregard for international law. On November 1918, I was shocked when Germany surrendered to the Allies. The world then was at peace.

The Great Migration The Diaspora of a Race
It was 1900. America was exuberant. The country was experiencing economic prosperity the cities were booming and the government was recklessly spending funds for public works. I was having a wonderful lunch with a friend at a local but decent restaurant. Then, I saw a couple of Negroes buying rail tickets from a station. I stopped bade farewell to my friend to examine the incident. I asked one of the Negroes why he is buying a couple of rail tickets. He replied, we are going to Chicago to find our fortunes. Yes, fortune. In these cities, manufacturing centers were being built to satisfy the needs of a growing population.

I wondered whether or not the incident is exclusive only to that family. Evidently, it was not. Other Negroes were purchasing tickets at another station. I asked myself, is this a movement of a people How ridiculous It turned out that Detroit, Cincinnati, and Baltimore were the main destinations. Well, I said to myself, those are growing cities, why not work there Indeed, the Negro race was leaving the premises of the east to work in industrial centers of the west.

Then the Irish came to the station. I said to myself, of all the people. I was just informed that a ship carrying Irish immigrants came to New York. The ships name was Prince of Wales, a name which seemed strange because the Irish were known opponents of the British. Anyway, a majority of them did not prefer to stay in New York. They wanted to work in the west, where it seemed future was more bright and attractive. I said to myself, what could possibly work working in New York City I really did not know the answer but one thing is clear. Both the immigrants and the Negro race were buying their way out of the city to work in the west.

Felipe Fernandez-Armesto is a successful and established historian cum author. He has penned down more than twenty five books which have also been translated in over twenty two languages. If students are looking for the true story of the evolution in the past, The World History Combined Volume is one history that will fulfill this purpose. This book not only shows the world but does so from different aspects such as through a holistic, truly attractive narration, the elementary connections between environment and the people. The able author Armesto will help students not only in learning the global history but also helps educators around the world in teaching history.
Axial age coupled with the secularism is another way of describing the transformation of the modern world. In literary terms, Axial means forming an axis and apparently not all but most of the philosophies and religions taught in the axial age are continuing in the modern world as well that is why it is sometimes referred to as the axis age. Felipe Fernandez-Armesto is educated in the striking similarities among a disparate group of sages who shaped theological and philosophical teachings.  The best ideas are old. We have added deplorably little to humankinds stock of thoughts in the past 2,000 years. We still turn for worldly guidance to Confucius, to Buddha for a sense of the transcendent, to Aristotle for clear rules of thought. We still abide by the moral teachings of the rabbinical tradition that culminated in Jesus Christ. Our philosophers write footnotes to Plato. Between them, the sages of the first millennium BC came up with ideas as influential as to justify a term that has become popular with scholars the axial age.

But how can one eradicate or remove the originality of the philosophies presented by Aristotle, Plato, and Thucydides Armesto in many ways tries to do this. He pulverizes these philosophies, applies different approaches, and analyzes these philosophies, otherwise recognized for its actually indifferent style of coherent presentation, with Chinese and Indian and also cultic, inexplicable thoughts and feelings and all within one but not so very organized chapter number 6 entitled The Great Schools. (Felipe, 158)

Discussion of the Axial Age is one of the most provocative topics in this book.  Armesto, however, in the second edition misses the former lengthy versions but still signifies the  astonishing attainments of the thinkers discussed above who have shaped the conversations according to what our world looks like today.  His comparison of environments gives a handful of thoughts as can be seen in his analysis of why the Sahel fails to play the same role in Africa as done in Eurasia. In an examination of the various societies namely Southwest, Mississippian, Norse Greenlander and Mayan societies, their problems in escalating into new ecological functions which are compared with the more triumphant hard works of various Eurasian citizens during the 11th and 12th centuries and with the Inuit.

The age was axial, too, because the regions in which the thought of the sages unfolded lay, axis-like, across Eurasia. China, India, Greece and southwest Asia were the linked locations in which axial thinking happened. The religious leaders of the time founded traditions of such power that they have huge followings to this day. The secular sages ran out, as if with their fingernails, grooves of logic and science in which people still think. They raised problems of human nature -and of how we can devise appropriate social and political solutions -that still preoccupy us and because much of their teaching found disciples who wrote it down, a body of texts survived to become reference points for subsequent study. Monotheism, republicanism, legalism, rationalism, logic, science, skepticism, the worlds most enduring religions and ethical systems -the tally of new thinking in the axial age looks impressive by any standards, but especially so in the light of its legacy to us.

How can it possibly be like for a person to be considered as one of the brightest, most profound and one of the most influential person who has ever walked the earth This may sound overwhelming, but the answer to this question is exactly what a man named, Confucius could possibly be feeling today if he is still living. Confucius has always been an exemplar of profoundness when it comes to philosophy. Over the years, his name has echoed within the four walls of the academe as a lot of younger philosophers utilized his teachings and his ideals in their quest for deeper and more comprehensive understanding of lifes realities and issues. His name is one of the most renowned in the fields of philosophy, even in literature and Asian studies. His teachings are some of the rarest, intriguing, insightful and influential there are in history. And through the years these teachings have created and brought about the worlds most significant philosophies, theories and studies. Considering the extent to influence Confucius was able to bring over the years, his credibility in terms of morality, ethics and knowledge and mastery in philosophy and literature have been incontestable. He was even able to establish a philosophy or system of ideologies -- the Confucianism -- of his own which has guided several nations and indigenous groups for generations. Hence, in line with the common interest of learning all about Confucius and Confucianism, this discussion shall delve on exploring the life, teachings and influences of Confucius.

Confucius, just like any other man, had an ordinary birth, ordinary childhood and an interestingly ordinary life. Confucius was born Kung Chiu. Throughout his childhood, his most typical dilemma was on how people pronounce his name. This common mispronunciation brought about an alias which is now one of the most renowned and respected names in the world, Confucius (Kaizuka 42). When Confucius was still a child, nobody really thought that he will someday be one of the worlds most renowned philosophers, for aside from the obvious smartness of Confucius as a child, there was really nothing extraordinary about him then. His leaning towards philosophy, literature ethics and morality was just developed way later in his adult years.

During the fifth and sixth centuries, Asia underwent a series of turmoil and chaos. A lot of nation and empires underwent a turbulent succession revolutions and clashes of beliefs and ideologies. In this mayhem, a dark and violent air of animosity and inhumanity was formed. This was what brought Confucius into founding what the world now knows as the moral and ethical philosophies of Confucianism. Apparently, Confucius was greatly disturbed and appalled by these incidents. Kaizuka notes,

Internationally, there prevailed a situation of chronic warfare within the kingdoms, there were sudden outbreaks of internecine disorder and unhappy ill-starred incidents such as the assassination of the ruler frequently occurred. Confucius, unable to near to look on this anarchy and lawlessness, is said to have planned to add his own comments to the official state chronicle of Lu, in the hope that, by giving prominence to the conduct of insurgent ministers who slew their princess, and of rebel sons who murdered their fathers, he might induce some spirit of self examination in the people of the time hence his resolve to compile the Chun-chiu. (14)

This was what has been considered to be the catalyst of the Confucian thought and philosophy. After this realization, Confucius eventually grew into an insightful man of philosophy who drew his achievements from sharing his person philosophies and ideals on morality and ethics.

The growth of the Confucian belief and tradition has, since then, been surpassing and hardly measurable. In Confucius thoughts and principles, most of the nations in Asia were able to find light in the most difficult feats that involve morality, ethics and politics. Confucius focused on these three main areas, and through the ages, he has been considered as one of the brightest scholars and philosophers who have ever delved on the said subject matters. Confucius was observed to be at his most influential state when he was still living. One of his greatest principle, which is now known as the golden rule says,

Fairness (shu) means making oneself the measure
What you do not wish for yourself, do not do unto others.
What you dislike in others, reject in yourself.
What you wish in others, seek in yourself.
This is fairness. (Roetz 136)

This is one of the most renowned teachings in the Confucian tradition. And over generations, this saying has impacted people differently, and this saying has already taken several versions and translations. As what has already been mentioned, Confucius generation was characterized by chaos and turbulence due to the violent oppositions of different ideologies and principles. Thus, it became a very conducive situation for Confucius contemplation. During this time, Confucius words of wisdom echoed so loudly with so much significance and relevance to the worlds necessity for peace and moral stability during that time. Englebert Kaempfer, a Dutch physician who studied Confuciuss influence in Japan notes,

A profound respect is shewn to his memory both in China and Japan, by publick as well as private Persons. Very lately the Emperor of Japan causd two Temples to be built to him in his Capital Jedo, whither he repaird in Person, as soon as they were finisd, and on this occasion set forth, in a handsome Speech to his Courtiers, the merits of this great Man, and the peculiar excellency of the maxims of Government laid down by him. His Picture is allowd the most honorable Place in the House of Philosophers, and all Persons who apply themselves to studies and learning never mention his name without particular tokens of respect. (Tucker 24)

From this alone, the greatness of the implication and influence of Confucius teachings and ideals become very evident. To further prove this, a prominent and respected collection of works still exist today which serves not just as a memoir of Confucius greatness, but as a remembrance that his teachings have been and are still very significant to the world. Shortly after his death, his teaching and works were compiled into one literary collection which was now known as The Analects. This collection holds most of Confucius most significant teachings, such as his notion of The Mandate of Heaven, as well as his ideals on conservatism, virtue ethics and humanism. This collection also consists of some of Confucius important conversations with his disciples. Furthermore, a lot of critics have actually found this work interesting enough as it also talks about some of Confucius composed aphorisms and poems. For some, this collection was even deemed the Confucian version of the Christians Holy Bible.

Today, the influence of Confucius is still very evident. Some of the virtue ethics and values being promoted by conservative and theological organizations can be seen to root from some Confucian principles. Furthermore, a lot of nations today still utilize Confucian principles and teachings in building better political systems. Hence, the implication and influence of Confucius in the moral transformation of the world are indeed unquestionable. His words surpassed generations, cultures and languages which further prove that his principles hold significant purpose and meaning to life. Thus, if only this great man is still living, it appears understandable if he will be overwhelmed by the respect and recognition the world may put upon him, for these respects are all deserved by a man this great.