History

The roadmap of this essay lies centrally in attempting to make a successful juxtaposition of the American and French Revolutions, in hopes of unearthing particular areas of similarities and difference, and so present, in a manner being substantial, a good case for comparison and contrast. As such, the revolutions in question represent only two of the highly significant events which wrought tremendous  and irrevocable  changes in human history. Yet their significance transcended that of any given world event, for reasons being that, quite understandably, they have been deemed chiefly instrumental in ushering the life of modern man into this present milieu. As one would see, revolutions are critical importance to human history. They can either break or make humans state of affairs, inasmuch as they can, on account of various reasons, become successful or frustrating. The point in contention shall be developed in the succeeding discussions. What may prove to be essential for this paper, however, is to note that this endeavor would not simply focus on the events which may be considered as contributory to the fermentation of the two revolutions, as this is more an analysis of the strains of similarities and difference which are palpable not only in the revolutions themselves, but also in respect to the specific eras which mark their respective historical circumstances.

Comparison and Contrast of the American and French Revolution Eras

To be able to circumscribe the antecedent causes, key factors, major players and historical consequences of both the American (1754-1781) and French Revolutions (1789-1799) is such an arduous task. For purposes of limitation therefore, this paper would look into at the similarities and differences that could be construed only from the antecedent causes and immediate socio-political effects of the said revolutions.

First, there are merits in saying that the two revolutions in question manifest strains of similarities insofar as they were  essentially  merely reactions to outstanding status-quos. In other words, one may find it hardly surprising to realize that both revolutions were, at the very least, invectives directed against lingering but fast-becoming irrelevant state of affairs. The fact that the two revolutions were contemporaneous  in that the American and French Revolutions both transpired within a period of less than a decade  is already suggestive of the ubiquitous sense of disenchantment in the worlds political atmosphere (Sparks Notes The French Revolution, 2010). In general, the two revolutions represented the need for wholesale changes. In particular however, they represented the desire either for total cessation of ties or complete breakaway from their respective authorities and duly-held paradigms. Thus, and on account of the motives lying underneath the American and French Revolutions, it is therefore readily arguable to maintain that they were efforts that were initiated and sustained in the name and for the sake of liberation causes. Simply put, the two revolutions are similar insofar as they were, all things considered, liberation movements.

But while similar in intent and thrust, it is not without good reasons to construe that the protests against which the American and French Revolutions were waged, manifest diverging and dissimilar objects of interest. On the one hand, the American Revolution was born out of an accentuated dissatisfaction over what appeared to be a salutary neglect of the government of England on matters pertinent to the governance of her colony, the America (Spark Notes The American Revolution, 2010). In other words, the immediate object of the American Revolution was to be freed from the shackles of Englands irrelevant governance, which, in many respects, only contributed to the Americans brewing desire to create an independent political government to call their own. On the other hand, the French Revolution was more a series of spontaneous civic protests  violent at times, one may say  against long-standing culture which pitted the monarchy, nobility, and clerics atop the socio-political pyramid. The French Revolution was a massive re-orientation of culture. In many ways therefore, it would be hard to ignore that the object of the French Revolution, since it targeted nearly all the fibers of societal life, and not just political setup, was therefore much broader in scope than that of the American Revolution.

Second, it merits taking close heed of the fundamental fact that the antecedent causes of both the American and French Revolutions manifest striking similarity, insofar as they were stirred, inspired, given articulation, and even justified by key thinkers of the era. The American Revolution was galvanized by the proponents of the Federalist movement and notable writings of intellectual figures at that time, which include the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson, the Articles of Confederation of 1781, the papers resulting from the First Continental Congress of 1774, among others, must be given considerable attention (The Library of Congress, 2010). Similarly, it is through the writings and philosophical treatises made by notable intellectual thinkers of the 18th century Europe that the French Revolution was given its primordial inspiration. In a very special manner, the political philosophy of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau became a massive force that lend support to the minor putsches preceding the actual French Revolution (The History Guide, 2010).

But while equally inspired by the political writings of their respective intellectual figures, the American and French Revolutions nevertheless differ in focus and paradigm. It can be argued that the American Revolution was highly political in tone and direction. Being that the primary motivation of the Federalist was to emancipate from the colonial rule of England, the nature of the American Revolution took on a very political tonality. The French Revolution, however, was much more ideological, in that  as previously mentioned  the tirades against its present authority was more an expression of disenchantment over a prevalent culture  e.g., composition of leaders, unspoken privileges of monarchy, ownership of properties, imposed taxes, among others (Sparks Notes The French Revolution, 2010).

Historical Legacies Ensuing from the Two Revolutions
The American and French Revolutions collectively had tremendous impacts not only on the life of the people immediately inheriting the radical changes they wrought, but also on the present generation which can be considered beneficiaries of the legacies they engendered. It would be in consonance with goal of this paper to mention at least two legacies bequeathed by the two revolutions (1) deep-seated changes in the socio-political life of Americans and Europeans, and (2) the model of autonomy generated as a result of the revolutions.

The immediate impact of the American Revolution cannot be mistaken i.e., the creation of a political system which allowed the Federalists to govern America, and thereby break free from the colonial- or protectorate-system of governance which was previously exercised by England. It became, in a sense, a concrete cessation of ties with England, and an equally liberating cessation with the ties that burdened the American people of unreasonable taxed levied by England. Meanwhile, the French Revolution introduced the modern concept of what we call equity in rights and privileges. Quoting heavily on the works of Rousseau, the participants of the French Revolution gained what otherwise would have been impossible to achieve given the socio-political status quo in France at the 18th century  i.e., the liberation not only from the age-old rule of the monarchy and the Church, but also from the system which had always given common French people lesser rights compared to those enjoyed by the monarchy, nobility and clerics. Among many others, the citizens of France were able to purchase lands previously owned by the Church, set up new tax system based not on privilege but on capacity to pay, and were able to the break free from imposing feudal contracts which burdened them significantly, after the French Revolution (SparkNotes The French Revolution,  2010).

Second, and in view of the foregoing, one may argue that one of the most enduring legacies of the American and French Revolutions lies in their ability to provide a model or exemplification of autonomy or independence. Here, one does not only speak of independence only in a political sense. The autonomy of which we speak, which the American and French Revolutions produced, pertains to the general socio-political, as well as religious day-to-day living of the people of America and France. True, the crux of both revolutions happened to have political underpinnings in their respective contexts, and even more sweeping political repercussions to the lives of both the American and the French people (Spark Notes The American Revolution, 2010). But they act only as one concrete instance of the whole autonomic consequences which would be emulated by many emerging nation-states the world over.

Conclusion
This paper now ends with a thought that affirms its initially slated thesis statement i.e., that the American and French Revolutions do in fact manifest strains of similarities, while maintaining distinct characteristics proper to their own. It can be gleaned from the discussions that the two revolutions both acted as catalysts for change and cessation of existing ties with the former world order  i.e., the French socio-political culture on the one hand, and Englands colonial rule on the other hand. Still, the two revolutions differ in their motives. The American Revolution was waged on account of the pursuit of political independence, while the French Revolution was largely a protest against injustice and inequality. In the final analysis however, one must readily acknowledge that both the American and French Revolutions ushered a new world order where autonomy, equality, and just recognition of basic rights are respected.

The name of Karl Marx, and to a certain extent Frederick Engels, will always be associated with the ideology he created  Marxism or communism. Marx and Engels (20061848) viewed the world from a different prism, the one of class struggle. It had been the case of the ruling class over the ones they ruled from feudalism to capitalism. The way they saw it was more of a master-slave relationship where the ruling class, the bourgeoisie dominated the lower class, the proletariat. This was done through the state which served as an instrument of repression.  Freedom (and equality) was non-existent (Marx  Engels, 20061848).

In view of this concept, Marx and Engels (19701932) defined freedom differently from the thinkers of Enlightenment. Their definition of freedom was somewhat biased and was limited to that of the proletariat who must seize control of the state in order to end the exploitation of the ruling class through revolution. Once the proletariat had seized the state, they must use it to erase the vestiges of the old system and create a new one, leading to what Marx and Engels (19701932) would call the classless society.  It was at this point where there would be true freedom in the state. The instrument of repression would fade away for it would no longer be necessary in this new communal society that would be created as it is only through this ideal society that freedom can be realized (Marx  Engels, 19701932).

This was how Marx and Engels defined freedomno class struggle with a ruling class oppressing or exploiting the lower class. Through communism, everyone would be equal and freedom would be guaranteed. Although this appeared to be a moral good under Marxism, other analysts saw it the other way around. Marx and Engels did not take into account individual freedom as they saw it from a communal view. This was why communism failed in the long run because it was equality in poverty and it was flawed after all, leading to its downfall.

Corregidor is a tadpole-shaped island off the Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines.  It sits along the entrance to Manila Bay and its location makes it an ideal defensive stronghold guarding the entrance to the city of Manila.  This was initially recognized by the Spanish who established a military outpost there that would serve as a warning post to warn of any incoming attack.  In peacetime, it would serve as a customs post. When the Americans replaced the Spaniards as the new colonizers of the Philippines, they too saw the strategic importance of this tiny island that came to be known later on as  The Rock  owing to its rocky topography.

The Americans improved on the defensive layout of the island by converting it into a fortress after the First World War.  The showpiece of the island-fortress was its battery of guns pointing westward towards the South China Sea.  These were 12-inch guns capable of hurling projectiles 14 miles out.  The US Army Corps of Engineers designed an elaborate mechanism that could make these guns  disappear  by putting them on a rail that would bring them out when they are ready to fire and pull them back to their bunkers to reload and protect them from counter attacks. There were a total of 12 batteries installed on Corregidor in addition to mortars and anti-aircraft guns.  A garrison, called  Mile Long  was also built and could be reinforced from forces in Manila or Bataan.  A hospital was also built and the Malinta Tunnel was constructed to serve as a storehouse for munitions and other supplies.  Man-made fortress-islands were also constructed in the surrounding areas such as Fort Drum and El Fraile which serve to compliment the defenses already in place in Corregidor, the main island.

Corregidor entered into prominence during the Second World War.  When the Japanese invaded the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, the overall military commander of the combined Philippine-American forces of the United States Armed Forces of the Far East (USAFFE), concentrated his forces along the Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor and hoped to hold out here until reinforced.  Despite the failure of reinforcements to arrive, the defenders of Bataan and Corregidor stubbornly kept the Japanese in check for almost 6 months long after Singapore, the impregnable fortress of the British fell to the Japanese earlier.  The stubborn defense put up by the USAFFE forces disrupted the Japanese timetable of invasion.  MacArthur valiantly and steadfastly kept the resistance going until he was ordered to Australia to lead the Allied forces for an impending counteroffensive which he reluctantly accepted.  He entrusted the command of the USAFFE to Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright and embarked on a perilous escape to Mindanao on Motor Torpedo Boats to waiting plane on the southernmost Philippine Island.  The key members of the Philippine Commonwealth Government, led by President Manuel L. Quezon followed suit, completely denying the Japanese total victory despite the eventual surrender of Wainwright on May 6, 1942.

Despite the defeat, the heroic stand of the men of Bataan and Corregidor became legendary and their memory was kept alive and honor vindicated when MacArthur retook the island in February 0f 1945.

During the World War II, Japan was very dependent on most of the natural resources and a number of the natural resources were only obtainable in Japan through imports. Imports were crucial to the economy of Japan during the World War II in order to keep in pace with the modern states of the time. One of the most crucial natural resource that was heavily lacking in Japan was oil and the United States had plenty of supplies. This disadvantage on the side of Japan was highly utilized to make Japan bow down to the requirements of the united state. It therefore required that the United States president be consulted on major economic activities in Japan since running most business depended on oil. The United States could then use the state of Japan of lacking oil to heavily suppress them during the war.

The oil production within Japan borders was not possible. Japan could not satisfy even 10 percent of her domestic consumption therefore, the reliance on the United States for oil supply of up to 80 percent was inevitable. It literally implied that the American president had the destiny of Japan survival. President Roosevelt did not waste chances he decided to choke Japan by locking all the oil supplies even the smallest drop from reaching the Japanese people. Japan had no option other than giving in to the demands of the United States.

Oil supply in the United States was the leading factor which led to Japan getting defeated in the war since they could not afford the needed capacity for peace building or domestic uses. The major supply of oil to U.S cannot be said to be from Saudi Arabia or the Persian Gulf in fact, the leading oil supply for U.S was Canada and of course Saudi Arabia, Mexico and Venezuela were also important sources. The Persian Gulf oil source merely accounted for about 10 percent of the U.S oil supply to Japan in 1940s.

The neighbors of the United States such as Mexico and Canada had very substantial unconventional and conventional oil production capacities. The neighbors had extremely good prospects for hiking the production potential and this made a steady fulfillment of oil demand in America. Much of the oil output was characterized in the central and south of America then followed by Europe with the Middle East being last in the list.

Venezuela was another major source of the U.S oil import during the 1940s. In fact, it was considered the leading in oil producing in the entire Western Hemisphere often estimated to be 77 billion barrels. Venezuela in addition had the largest deposits of heavy oil which can be in the near future be economically exploited. The PAD Districts 3 and 5 were also main oil reserve and production areas for U.S in the 1940s with Texas, Louisiana, California and Alaska being with the largest concentration. However, since 1940s, the oil production share has risen by about 50 percent over the last 10 years. These improvements have been typical in the deepwater sources of the Gulf of Mexico.

Prior to the United States enforcing the Export Act, Japan has already accumulated up to 54 million oil barrels. The United States had only exported oil to Japan until 1940 and all was stopped. It is estimated that the oil export to Japan from the United States dropped significantly to about 60 percent.

In 1942 at the height of the World War Two, Hitler ordered an attack in the Soviet Unions oilfields of Caucasian region of Baku, Groznyy and maikop. The operation was nicknamed operation blue and it started in June 22nd 1942 shortly after winter ended in Russia. At the time, most of the Soviet Union regions of Byelorussia, Ukraine Latvia Lithuania were under the control of the Germans. This made the German front to be around a thousand miles from Lake Ladoga to Aazov Sea. Hitler then ordered his army to head to the oilfields in the southern side of the USSR. His major interest in attacking the oilfields was to gain control of the oilfields. Hitler argued that if his red army ran out of fuel, it would crumble and if it gained access to the oilfields, it would flourish. He ordered the south army group to provide the necessary military hardware needed for the attack on Groznyy and maikop. He was so obsessed with gaining control of the oil in the oilfields that he once told the high command at wehrmachts that he was all sighing towards capturing the oil at Groznyy and Maikop.

Hitler determination to capture the oilfields was due to a conviction he had that if the oilfields were captured, together with the rich farmland of Ukraine, the German empire he was trying so hard  to expand would become self-reliant inside its borders, hence more strong and invulnerable. Baku was the oilfield Hitler was most interested in because of his obsession with oil, and he was aware of the worth of the reserves of this world major oilfield at the time. The plan of operation for the attack on the Caucasus oilfields was nicknamed edelweiss. Initially, the German leader had no intention of bombing Baku because of this need of utilizing them. The quest of Hitler to capture Baku was almost being achieved by the late of July 1942, at the time the Germans had gained control of Rostov city and control of oil pipeline from Caucasian. Maikop city was captured in 9th of august 1942, but it was not producing enough oil for the Germans since its output was about a tenth to that of Baku. This was due to severe destruction that was done to the oilfields infrastructure and supplies by the Russians before they withdrew from the city. The destruction was so severe that by the end of January 1943, they could manage to get just seventy barrels in a day.

The lack of enough oil in Maikop intensified Germans resolve to capture the oilfields of Baku that they even fixed a final day for its takeover to be 25th of September 1942. So obsessed was Hitler with Baku that days before the affixed take over date, when he was presented with a cake bearing the shape of Caspian sea and Baku by his generals, he choose the part with shape of Baku. The determination and obsession didnt yield the success of capturing the oilfields since at this time, they were fighting in two fronts the Caucasian and the Stalingrad. This stretched German resources in the war but in the Germans leader mind, there was point of retreat until they accessed bakus oil or the war was lost. Hitler was preoccupied at the time with the German match to Iran and Iraq where they would have closed their defeat over England. Due to this miscalculation, the Germans were not able to capture this oilfield and Stalingrad became their first key loss in the war.

The Second Battle of El Alamein refers to one of the battles that were fought on the North African frontier of World War II (WWII). It was fought between the Allied forces led by the British and the Axis forces which were made up of Germany and Italy. Allied forces fought under the command of British Field Marshall Bernard Law Montgomery and Axis forces were led by Erwin Rommel. The El Alamein battlefront was a 40 miles stretch of land that ran from the Mediterranean coast of North Africa to the impenetrable Quattra Depression. After the May-June 1942 Battle of Gazala, both Axis and Allied forces had paused for several weeks to rebuild their forces and for Adolf Hitler, the isolated El Alamein railway station appeared to be the climax at which he would finally be able to capture Egypt from the British. But this was not to be so because the Allied forces came back to the battle front stronger, more organized and more armed. During this war, the British and Allied forces won a very significant battle that led to an equally significant decision about closing a war front on the Continent of Africa although the Axis forces would not bulge until the Tunisia Campaign came to a close. It was the first land victory that the British enjoyed against the Germans during WWII.

During the second battle of El Alamein like in other battles, Allied forces displayed a high level of superiority not only in the kind of equipment that they used but also in the higher number of its forces. The Allied Army consisted of about 200,000 men (nearly half of which were from Britain) against a German and Italian force of 100,000 men. They had also greatly improved the quality of their equipment to match those of the opposition Axis forces. Such war equipment as 6-pdr anti-tank guns, Sherman tanks and Spitfire were added to the War Machinery in the Western Desert. Montgomery also brought in a new restructuring of the 8th Army by introducing new generals and new divisions as well as lifting the morale of the forces under his command through his victory-filled language. He was a kind of man who always talked about blowing up the enemy forces and at no one time did he make the forces under his command think that they would lose the battle.

Allied forces fought a well-coordinated battle and Montgomery had a vivid imagination the length of time that the battle would last and the approximate number of lives that would be lost an imagination that helped him to organize his operations in a well planned manner. The Allied forces also proved to be more superior to the Axis forces in the way that they handled their artillery in a very excellent manner. Their Air support also had little comparison to that of the opposing Axis forces who nearly abandoned their ground forces as they concentrated in air-to-air conflict. The Axis forces underestimated the kind of resistance that they got from the Allied forces on the ground because of the strong resistance that the Allied forces displayed on air. Air combat superiority helped the Allied forces towards their victory. They were able to successfully engage the Germans and Italians on air in such a way that they almost ignored the war on the ground and this helped the British to advance very easily.

Axis forces also had a lot of other myriad problems that weakened their forces. Rommel fell sick and went back to Germany for treatment and the forces were put under the new command of Georg Von Stumme in the middle of a battle. This must have played down the morale of the Axis forces. Before the battle was over, another tragedy struck and Stumme died of a sudden heart attack. Such disruption in the line command came at the wrong time and although Rommel came back to replace Stumme, the Axis forces were gradually losing power. Rommels forces also went through a great loss in terms of human life losing bout 75,000 men, 500 tanks and a thousand guns among other losses. The remaining Axis forces were also unable to set up a strong resistance because Rommel also went short of fuel and the strong British forces could not be successfully attacked by forces which were immobile. Because of the losses in life, machinery and the added fuel shortage, Rommel decided that he had better withdraw from a battle that he considered already lost. Despite commands from Hitler to stay in the war front and die there, Rommel chose the way out and the German ground forces were forced backwards and retreated as far back as 1,500 miles to Tunisia. The Second Battle of El Alamein became the first battle that Allied forces won without American support.

Conclusion
Hitler had never been the kind of man who foresaw defeat and the British victory in the second Battle of El Alamein must have been a great shock to him. But no matter how brave or how strong he felt inside, the Allied forces had overtaken his forces during their short period of reorganization to mount an offensive that was too strong for the Axis forces to resist. Besides, the British had heavily invested in the battle both in terms of the number of soldiers and also in improvement of their machinery. The British superior air force was however the most determining factor in the British victory during this war.

Police force is vital in any city regardless of whether crime rate is low or high.  The role of the police or firemen is to maintain law and order ensuring peace within the nation.  The San Francisco police safeguards security within the border regions, work on the appropriate strategic plans on community policing, and the general improvement of the national development plans under secure environment.

The involvement of advanced IT systems gives the police an upper hand in the monitory and evaluation of peace and security. Department uses a wide coverage of powerful cameras capable of monitoring the public places at close range disclosing the city hideouts. The department of police is responsible for the preparation and presentation of annual security reports and the government is responsible for it funding.  The police department of San Francisco is famous for its toughness in the west its ability to strongly monitor and curb bandits, homicides and the corrupt immoral state of the city of California that existed within the 1990s.

The city of San Francisco in California would just be the worst place to stay without the police since crime rate would be untamed and loss of control not only for the city but also to the State of California. Theft and immorality are at an alarming rate at San Francisco and this threats both citizens and neighboring communities. Slogans like, never leave your car in front of a golden gate are used to mark some city streets, scaring all who visits such places (San Francisco Police Department, n.d).
In conclusion, crime rate would stay unmanaged if San Francisco was not guarded by the tough policefiremen. This would simply mean a second hell full of killings, theft, and immorality.

The main objective of this article is restricted to examining foundations utility from a general perspective. The foundations as put forward by Turgot are explained in the manner in which they are associated to the good of the public and to some extent, demonstrate some of the disadvantages involved. According to Turgot, a founder is an individual who wishes to lengthen his or her own wills effect for eternity. However, even if such an individual is granted motives that are absolutely pure, and there is absence of several grounds on which his enlightenment can be questioned, it might be argued that when ones intentions are clear that he or she wants to do good, doing harm is not easy.

Turgot suggests that foreseeing with high certainty degrees that a particular foundation will in future produce the initial objectives, instead of one that produces effects that are contrary is like hiding behind an illusion of apparent or near good and thus failing to acknowledge the evils that actually take place bringing with them unseen causes. Therefore, when developing foundations, it is very essential to take into account such evils and consider their future implications on the original effects that were intended by the founder (Baker, 1987).

Turgots foundations
In most cases, foundations assist a few people against a certain evil, when the cause of such evil is universal, and at times the applied remedy to the effect has the result of increasing the causes influence. For instance, when establishing asylum houses for the repentant women, for them to gain entrance, they have to provide some proof of life that is debauched. This particular precaution was mainly devised in order to ensure that the foundation is not in any way diverted to serve other goals other than the intended ones. But critically looking at the precaution, does it not prove that it is not possible to curb debauchery through the use of such establishments, which are not related at all to the true causes of the foundation. The debauchery case is also applicable on poverty poor people have claims that are incontestable on the rich peoples abundance. Religion and humanity alike impose on us the duty of relieving misfortunes that have befallen on other people. In order to fulfill these duties that are indispensable, establishments of charity have greatly proliferated in the world of the Christians and they are aimed at relieving all kinds of necessities from the great numbers of poor people who are gathered in churches and hospitals and are therefore fed through the daily distributions that are offered at the gates to convents (Baker, 1987).

Charities for helping the poor might be good and their intentions might be clear and observed fairly well. However, they bring about other unprecedented and unforeseen problems. Offering free subsistence to a huge number of people is similar to subsidizing idleness and each and every disorder originating from it, thus making the loafer condition to be preferred more compared to the getting livelihood from working. This has the implication of depriving the state since the total work that will be done within the state will decrease. The land productivity will decrease over time as more and more people prefer the loafer condition and thus avoid working. As a result, the frequency of scarcities in the state will increase dramatically and so will be depopulation and misery among the people. The generation of citizens who are industrious will in turn be replaced by one that is vile, which will mainly be comprised of wandering beggars who will eventually be involved in each and every type of crime within the society (Baker, 1987).
 
The society has obligations for its members who are unfortunate and cannot afford various basic necessities. The society should however not provide directly to these people by giving them all the basic needs they require as this will not assist such people solving their problems which will certainly reoccur in future in a much bigger way and thus impact negatively on the same society. The society should accomplish its obligation on the poor by providing them with means through which they can earn their own income. In doing so, the poor living standard of the poor will be raised and the wealth of the society and indeed that of the whole nation will increase. Therefore, the foundations that are currently operating should not be much focused on meeting the immediate needs of the unfortunate people in the society, which are primarily the symptoms of a much bigger disease, but to focus its energies in creating a source of income for such people that will run into perpetuity (Baker, 1987).

Conclusion
Turgot explains that in virtually all cases, foundations are developed to accomplish a purpose that is good for the members of the society. However, the foundations themselves eventually contradict their own original objectives by assisting in the pursuit of other goals that eventually end up harming the society. Even though the society has an obligation to the poor, it should not fulfill them in a manner that makes the unfortunate members of the society attract others and thus widen the poverty and crime brackets within the society.

In terms of area and population, Texas is the second largest state in the United States of America. Texas joined the US in the year 1845 and it became the twenty eighth state. This led to a set of events such as the Mexican American war.  During the American civil war, Texas joined the confederate states of America. After the war Texas was restored into the union again.

Discussion
Texas was initially a province in Mexico. Americans began to move beyond their countrys borders in the early 1800s.This was according to a request made by the Mexican government so that the sparsely populated lands could be populated. During this time Mexico was a colony of Spain. The three hundred American families were led by Stephen Austin. The main aim was to start a permanent settlement. In their year 1821, Mexicans managed to win their independence from Spain. Some of the conditions that these settlers had to put up with were that they had to convert into Catholicism and that they had to become citizens of Mexico (Fehrenbach 263- 269).

The Anglo Americans were not very receptive to the Mexican rules. This is because most of these Americans had migrated with their slaves and the Mexican government had outlawed slavery. The Anti slavery law by the Mexican government was put in place in the hope that the Americans would be discouraged and move back to the US. It was as a result of this move by the Mexican government and other reasons that Texas declared its independence from Mexico. This resulted to a war between Texas and Mexico. The war ended in the year 1836 and Sam Houston was elected as the first president of Texas based on the platform of annexation of Texas to the United States. An annexation proposal was submitted by the Texas ambassador to the Van Buren administration in the year 1837.The administration though that if it accepted this proposal then it would lead to war with Mexico and hence the proposal was declined.

In the year 1838, Mirabeau Lamar was elected as the president of Texas and was against the annexation of Texas and hence Texas withdrew its proposal. In the year 1843, president john Tyler was in full support of the annexation of Texas and began negotiations with the republic of Texas with regard to an annexation treaty. President John Tyler presented the treaty to senate in the year 1844 and unfortunately it was unable to meet the two thirds majority required for ratification (Federal Writers Project 206-212).

In November 1844 James Polk who was a democrat in favor of territorial expansion, was elected. The Tyler administration and president Polk decided that the best way to go about the annexation of Texas was through a joint resolution. According to this resolution Texas would become a state so long as it met some conditions. Some of the conditions outlined were that Texas was supposed to split itself into four states upon admission and approve its annexation by January 1 1846.This joint resolution was approved by the senate and presented to President Jones Anson of Texas. The American annexation offer was endorsed by Texan congress in 1845 and they started writing a state constitution. The annexation ordinances as well as the constitution were approved by the Texas citizens. In October 1845, these documents were signed by President Polk and Texas was formally integrated into the USA on December 1845 (Fehrenbach 263- 269).

The Mexican American war broke out after Texas had been annexed. The annexation of Texas destroyed Mexicos diplomatic relations with the United States. The United States stressed that the Texas state extended to the Rio Grande while Mexico insisted that it was the Nueces River. Since Texas was unable to enforce it border claims, the United States used its political will and military strength in order to accomplish this. In the year 1846, the Mexican American war broke out. The battles that were fought in Texas included Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Fort Texas siege and Battle of Palo Alto. The United States was victorious in these battles and was finally able to invade Texas and end the fighting. This two year war was ended by the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the US was given total control of Texas by Mexico. Texas borders were established at the Rio Grande. Texas was later engaged in the American civil war where it made great contributions in terms of soldiers and equipments (Winders, 41-50).

Conclusion
Texas became a state in the year 1845. This resulted from the decision to annex Texas. There were several political factors that played a part in the inclusion of Texas into the union. The Mexican American war and the American civil war were some of the battles that broke out when Texas joined the US.

Introduction
Jacob Riis book is a well-concocted mixture of factual research and emotionally heart-rending stories about the lives of those who lived in New Yorks notorious tenements.

The book discusses the problem thoroughly and then ends with a practical solution citing examples where such changes have been implemented.

For this book the poor are the thousands of immigrants to America who are stuck in low paying jobs(some with wages as low as 2) and living in terrible conditions in the tenements. The conditions that he describes are appalling and it is these discussions which actually help define what poverty. Poverty is degrading, with human beings living in filthy and overcrowded badly-maintained buildings and it destroys the human spirit and mind. Poverty is when a mother kills her infant because it is crying for food and she cant feed it or when a girl is forced into something prostitution because she can no longer support her family on the measly salary she gets as a sales-girl.

Jacob Riis touches on many issues affecting these poorer areas of New York. One of the most painfully obvious being the terribly dehumanizing living conditions that individuals in these areas are forced to survive in. The tenements are painfully over crowded, no proper mechanism of sanitation and no means of even a little ventilation or light. Then there are a host of other issues that are connected with these areas including disease, crime, truancy and in some cases starvation.

The author also points out why these issues cannot be continued to ignored. Other then the simple inhumane conditions in which so many people live he warns that the huge class chasm that such tenements engenders will have painful consequences of its own.

Tenement-Cause and consequence of poverty
One of the main reasons that  such living conditions have been allowed to grow is because of the massive number of immigrants crossing into America everyday man of whom choose New York as their home. These immigrants come from all over Europe(specially Germany, Italy and Russia) and Asia(mostly China). There was no plan on how to manage or house these immigrants. Initially the tenements were a blessing since they were the only areas in the city which the immigrants or the working-class poor could afford. Eventually however this came to be deemed a business opportunity. Older houses became of more values because of their potential as tenement houses, as the book describes large rooms were partitioned into several smaller ones, without regard to light or ventilation, the rate of rent being lower in proportion to space or height from the street and they soon became filled from cellar to garret with a class of tenantry . squalid as beggary itself.( Riis A Jacob How the Other Half Lives-Studies Among the Tenements of New York ).

The immigrants wanted to live near the main city area and the tenement owners exploited this opportunity. The rooms were impossibly small and hardly anything was spent on maintaining the building or making it even slightly more livable. The poverty of the immigrants, many of whom had come with very little from their country made these tenements acceptable to them and the fear of being asked to leave incapacitated them from asking for improvements or even lower rents. Therefore these tenements were a consequence of poverty. However the sin, the disease and the apathy they bred are also causes of poverty.

Crime
The metropolis offers the possibility of a new life and a future but more often than not sees people worse of then they started . Jacob Riis builds a clear picture when he speaks of the lodging houses. The lodging houses range from those asking for 25 cents a night to those asking for 7 cents a night. Moving from one lodging house to a cheaper ones means increased desperation and moving down in life. It is here that many criminals look for desperate young men to recruit who are running out of opportunities with which to make money legally, thus making these a centre of criminal activity,
As a matter of fact, some of the most atrocious of recent murders have been the result of schemes of robbery hatched in these houses, and so frequent and bold have become the depredations of the lodging-house thieves, that the authorities have been compelled to make a public demand for more effective laws that shall make them subject at all times to police regulation.(Riis A Jacob How the Other Half Lives-Studies Among the Tenements of New York )

The authors research led him to an example where a young man unable to find employment elsewhere and fast running out of any money he might have had, falls into the hands of a criminal who teaches him how to pick-pocket. However unable to get him to generate enough through this activity he burns the boys hand and turns him out to begging.

Crime makes the issue of the lodging houses central to the greater community and makes these an important concern for citizens and for politicians specially at election time.

Another sort of criminal activity that the sheer poverty breeds is prostitution. The author explains that women are paid much less for doing the same job than men. This is supported by his research between the different pays that salesmen and saleswomen get. Young girls forced to survive maybe tempted by the desire of a slightly better life take this rou thinking it will offer them an escape.

Alcohol
The alcohol consumed here is of low quality and very destructive to health.  According to the author many tenement owners and citizens in general blame the poverty and filth of the masses on this poisonous brew that they consume. Many families have been destroyed because the little that the bread-earner managed to bring in was wasted on alcohol.

An important issue connected both to alcohol and crime is the impact that it has on the children in New-York. Although legally forbidden from serving children the authors research has indicated that this law is not respected at all. The alcohol and the company that he finds in the saloons destroys any hope the future that boy might have outside the crime and poverty of the tenements. As the author writes

For the corruption of the child there is no restitution. None is possible. It saps the very vitals of society undermines its strongest defences, and delivers them over to the enemy. , baffling the most persistent efforts to reclaim him. There is no escape from it no hope for the boy, once its blighting grip is upon him..( Riis A Jacob How the Other Half Lives-Studies Among the Tenements of New York )

The importance of reform
One of the earliest recognition of the needs of reform comes at the time when the fear of cholera hangs over New York. The city is painfully aware of the filth and overcrowding in which so many of the city live and the danger that this posed as far as the spread of the disease grows. Soon after this a Tenement-House Act was adopted the first legislation of its kind. Also the newspapers by covering some of the painful stories that the author accounts probably played their role in inciting public out-rage. Legal regulations become together and sanitation officers were assigned to improve the conditions of these buildings. Although at the time this book was written many tenements were still in very terrible states the reform process was underway. The author himself accounts the example of tenement owners who have made the effort to interact with those staying in their buildings and have simultaneously improved the conditions of the building and raised the standard of hygiene expected from their tenants. The experiments in this regard that he quotes have been successful. For the author this is an important part of the solution, a relationship of mutual benefit of owner and tenant.

Conclusion
This book played an important role in highlighting the issues that it did creating greater awareness of the terrible conditions in which many of the tenants live and the social responsibility of working to improve these conditions.

Although the tenements are no longer an issue for New York the issue of poverty still remains a painful and poignant problem. The very title of the book reminds us that the developed world cannot turn its back on what the rest of the world faces. Recent world events have brought this painfully to our attention. The point that Jacob Riis makes is still relevant today and as he says.

The gap between the classes in which it surges, unseen, unsuspected by the thoughtless, is widening day by day... Against all other dangers our system of government may offer defence and shelter against this not. I know of but one bridge that will carry us over safe, a bridge founded upon justice and built of human hearts. (Riis A Jacob How the Other Half Lives-Studies Among the Tenements of New York ).

1. Conversations with Alice Paul Woman Suffrage and the Equal Rights Amendment
This oral history was recorded in November 1972 by Amelia R. Fry. During the interviews, Paul talked about her family and education, her suffrage work in Britain, the suffrage campaign in USA, the Equal Rights Amendment and other accomplishments. The oral history also includes Letters from Alice Paul, Suffragists songs and several newspaper clippings. At the time of the interview, Paul was eighty seven years old and according to Fry, although she had forgotten some of the more brutal details of the suffrage campaign, she still seemed to be very mush in charge of her mental faculties. Hence, this is an extremely important and an accurate enough account of the suffrage movements and the life of Alice Paul.

2. The photograph below is of the celebrations after the thirty sixth state, Tennessee, ratified the amendment and the nineteenth amendment became a law. In the photograph, Alice Paul is seen unfurling a banner from the second floor balcony of National Womans Party headquarters in Washington D.C. The banner has 36 stars representing the 36 states that had ratified. Alice Paul had herself sewed on the 36th star.
 
3. This photograph shows women and children parading in the streets of Washington in May 1914. This orderly, non-violent parade attracted a huge crowd as can be clearly seen in the photograph. Although women had been carrying out such parades for quite some time, they were ignored until the start of the World War I, when the government started taking strict actions against them.

4. This handbill was an invitation to attend demonstrations in Chicago on 10th and 11th April 1916 to argue the case for womens suffrage. The handbill refers to enfranchised states as a reminder that some states had already granted suffrage to women. The handbill lists the speakers at the demonstration, which is essentially a list of all the important suffragists. This is an important document as it helps us understand the various strategies that women employed to win suffrage.

5. This handbill was published in 1917 and contains concerns regarding the imprisoned picketers. This is an important document since it presents both the picketers argument for being given suffrage as well as explains how picketing women were illegally arrested and detained. The handbill tells of the plight of the imprisoned women who were acting well within their rights. It also states how after being illegally detained, these women were also denied their right of trial by jury. The handbill is also an invitation to attend a speech.

Non-written sources such as historical artifacts and oral interviews have some advantages over written sources. Non-written sources provide the researchers fresh information with regard to specific subjects. By fresh, we mean information which are derived directly from its source. In short, information gathered are not yet subject to human error. To illustrate this case, suppose that the researcher found a strange document which discusses the history of the Roman Empire from the perspective of a 3rd century priest. The information which can be derived from this document is fresh because its internal validity is not yet affected by human biases in interpretation. Now, a researcher who is dependent on written sources should be overtly cautious of historical claims. Scholars often base their claims from the claims of other scholars. This is quite the case in written sources.

Overt reliance on oral historical interviews should likewise be avoided. Sometimes claims are exaggerated. For example, some scholars argue that the Alice Paul and the Womens Suffrage Movement supported abortion. These scholars based their claim from in-depth interviews of high-ranking government officials in the Wilson administration. It is clear, however, that Alice Paul regarded abortion as a moral predicament.

There are some written sources which are very beneficial to historians. These are narratives and historical biographies. These sources offer flexible interpretations to given historical claims.

1. With regards to slavery, slaves had virtually no rights.  They were treated as property.  They are not even allowed to learn how to read for the slave owners feared that a literate slave might one day turn against them.  Hence, it was better to keep them illiterate and ignorant to maintain their docility and servitude.

2. With regards to the law governing children of slaves, they automatically become slaves upon birth.  This came about after the slave trade ended and it made slave women who were fertile very much in demand to help keep the population of slaves sufficient to the needs of the rural economy of the South.

3. Looking at it from Lincolns perspective, it was not only reasonable but very obvious.  It was only proper to return these freed slaves to the land of their birth with the hope that they could resume their old lives once more.  Through hindsight, the emancipation of the Negroes did not give them complete freedom and equality as they had to go through segregation for nearly a hundred years.

4. What is surprising is that Linda consents to having an affair with her white neighbor which was preferable to being abused sexually by her owner.  And when she escaped, she was fortunate that her children were sold off rather than made to disappear (Jacobs, 1861).

5. It is probably appalling to say the least.  It can be inferred that discussing this might give wrong impressions and even stereotyping about African-American women.

6. Regardless of race, the point is when the issue of sex is combined with women, the impression would be women are merely sex objects whose role is nothing more than to satisfy mens lusts.

7. Probably not.  Apathy would probably have made them turn away.

8. This would be Aunt Linda.  Though she has a positive character, it is her selfishness that seems to negate this character when she became so possessive of her children and grandchildren that she did not want to separate with them even if it meant being free.

9. First, slavery is something to be loathed upon in the sense that human beings should not be treated inhumanely.  Second and corollary to this is how women like Linda are treated.  Treating women like sex objects and mere child-bearers is truly appalling.

10. If there is one question in my mind, it would be how could people in the South be so cruel

This essay covers the origin of democracy through the classical period. The Classical Period of the Ancient Greek covers the period between 500 and 336 BC.  It entails the period when the Greeks started having conflicts with the Persians and the demise of the king of Macedonia as well as Alexanders conquering in 323 B.C.  It is in this time that Athens reached her greatest cultural and political heights which were due to the leadership of Pericles and others.  The essay also emphasizes on the roles of key personalities who enhanced the establishment of democracy in Ancient Greece.

For more than two centuries the Athens was a pre-eminent power at the Mediterranean.  This empire of the Athens was made up of 172 states that paid tribute and were entirely controlled by the Aegean.  Athens had a lot of wealth which was in terms of literature, architecture, politics, art and philosophy which still is a source of inspiration to many in the whole world.  Till the start of the 6th century, Athenians were ruled by generals and aristocrats.  The peoples position on the hierarchy relied on their level of wealth, which caused the idea that poor people in the society had no rights.  At that point in time Lycurgus was in charge of the Spartan state and he was spearheading the legal systems reforms.  Consequently, in Athens there was a deepening political crisis that had rendered may bankrupt due to their effort to trade with everything they owned in order to get food whose scarcity was enhanced by the rapidly growing population. This crisis was solved when a poet as well as a law giver Solon came in to power, he formed the first basis of democracy in Athens by declaring that all citizens were equal by law and he abolished the inheriting of privileges from parent.  He further ordered the cancellation of all agricultural related debts and he also freed all the slaves. It is still under this system that the Athens successfully took the lead in the Marathon and Salmis battles through the resistance against the Persians (Raaflaub, Ober and Wallace, 2007, 100).

In 561 B.C, Pisistratus, a former leader in the military took over the rule in place of Solon.  He rewarded peasants in the society by giving them land confiscated from families that were wealthier.  Pisistratus also encouraged people to undertake trade and get involved in programs that enhanced their economy. He initiated the building of religious centers as well as encouraging the introduction of religious festivals. Hippias, his eldest son succeeded him.  Hippias was similar to his father in terms of administration.  However, when Hippias brother Hipparchus was killed he became suspicious and nervous.  The Sparta in support of the Delphi clan took advantage of the same by attacking the Athenians hence deposing Hippia who ran to Persia. Cleomenes who was the leader of the clan took over the position but still he was under great opposition from Cleisthenes.  Cleisthenes took an unprecedented initiative by seeking his political support from the citizens which he won.  In 508 B.C., he established a political organization that allowed the citizens to be more powerful and involved them in the direct duty of running the businesses of the city state.  The new organization was known as demokratia a Greek word for democracy, which meant a rule led by the total citizens body (Cartledge, 2004, 50).   He divided the entire Athenian society into ten tribes which replaced the initial four formed by Solon.  The tribes had names for fallen local heroes and they included Aegeis, Leontis, Oeneis, Erechthesis, Pandianis, Acamantis, Hippothontis, Cecropsis, Antiochis and Aeantis.  
The archons and aropagus continued but he revised the four hundred council created by Solon and changed it to a five hundred council in which every tribe contributed fifty members. The tribes shared common activities in terms of religion and they were fighting as regimental units.  This ensured that no region was dominant in a tribe as well as assured increased devotion.  To ensure accountability and effectiveness each group of fifty men form each tribe carried out executive and administrative functions for a tenth of a year.  However, the council had no power to declare war rather it was the duty of the entire citizen assembly. The assembly carried out four meeting every year where the first meeting tackled issues on ostracisms, corn supply, officials qualifications, security and defense.  In the second meeting they tackled any issues arising, while in the third and fourth meetings they had debates on foreign, secular and religious affairs.  Finally, he reformed the military by requiring and ensuring the every tribe supplied horsemen as well as hoplite regiments (Gill, 2009, 6).

In 461 B.C. Pericles came into power and he established the concept of democracy by building huge architectural monuments for instance the Parthenon to hire employees and to symbolize the Athens majesty.  He was a brilliant statesman who ruled for fifty years hence that period was considered the Golden Age for the Greeks since they had embraced civilization.  Pericles collaborated with Ephialtes to ensure that there was a shift of balance in terms of power to the poorest segment of the society.

During that period Parthenon was constructed in Acropolis which made Acropolis an intellectual, cultural, artistic and commercial city in the Hellenic world.  Through the leadership of Pericles the Athenians continued with their battles against the Persian thereby liberating the Aegean islands as well as the Ionian Greek cities at the Asia Minor. Together with their allies at the Delo Island, the Athens also formed the Delian League by forcing all the people through threats and swearing an oath.  They raided the Persians land enable setting freedom to the seas which were under pirates.  The enemies of the Athens became fewer and hence everyone in the league started devoting the resources they had to endeavors that were peace oriented.  This guaranteed the power of the Athens hence influencing their neighboring members to do the best for them.  This was evident by how they made payment to Athens so that they could maintain the fleet.  This money was used to build monuments and temples of the city.  In some situations the residents of the Thassos Island rebelled against making the set payment which led to attacks by the Athens.  In 454 B.C. Pericles initiated the movement of Delos treasury to Acropolis to enable the safer keeping of their treasures.  The democratic Athens was also able to give a stage to Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles and Aristophanes which formed the foundations upon which the critical thoughts and western rational were laid.
 However, the democratic system had several internal critics who emphasize their negativity about democracy in occasions when the Athens got weak.  For instance during the Peloponnesian War between 431 and 404 B.C., many catastrophes were experienced giving the conservatives an opportunity to prove that democracy was not the best option.  Further, the Athenian oligarchs in 411 and 404 B.C. caused counter revolutions that enabled oligarchy to replace democracy to the extreme.   The 404 B.C. oligarchs were upheld by Sparta one of Athens oldest enemies.  However, the Athens oligarchs were unable to maintain and retain their position in power and just after twelve months or so democracy was gotten back.  For the first time in history, a declaration of general amnesty was made as well as the notorious trial of Socrates.  The democracy restored flourished effectively and with stability for over eighty years.

Lastly, in 322 B.C., the Macedonian Kingdom had risen through Philip and Alexander the Great who was Philips son and became the suzerain of all the Greece.  The Kingdom brought to an end a portion of the most ever successful experiments in self-government for the citizens. Due to this enormous growth, many states viewed Athens as a threat. There arouse differences between Athens and Sparta which led to the Peloponnesian Wars, which were the longest wars of Antiquity.  This led to the defeat of Athens thereby marking the end of the classical period (Martin, 2009, 100).

Feminism is described as a political, economic or cultural movement that aims to establish equal rights for women. The two crucial aspects of feminism are as follows 1) commitment to personal change and 2) commitment to societal change. In individual terms, feminism seeks to define the character and nature of women the cultural and social context of femininity. The different kinds of feminism are as follows a) liberal feminism, b) socialist feminism, c) radical feminism, d) eco-feminism and e) third wave feminism. Liberal feminism is described to have distinctive or individualistic emphasis on equality. According to this kind of feminism, women should be equally treated in society not by major overhauls rather by institutional changes that will give women open opportunities. On the other hand, socialist feminism also known as Marxist feminism focuses on gender equality through major overhauls like economic restructuring. It also centers on collective societal change and empowerment. Radical feminism as socialist feminism stresses the need for dramatic social changes to achieve women equality. Eco-feminism is a kind of feminism that is more spiritual rather than political in nature. Under this kind of feminism, a patriarchal society will exploits all resources regardless of the long-term consequences. Lastly, third wave feminism is similar to liberal feminism as they both focus on individual empowerment that will further change the society. Feminist backlash is the event and philosophy that criticize feminism. They are groups involved in backlash against feminism because they believed that feminism is not to be part of a growing and progressing society. The five ways discussed in the text that discredited feminism are 1) women suffer from economic discrimination, 2) most women are now working, 3) day-care crisis equated to the question if women are now working, then, who will mind the kids, 4) the divorce revolution means that women have to work and 5) there is an epidemic of male family violence.

Humans differ because they possess differing personalities. However, personality is not the sole basis of differentiation. The society can create structural and institutional categories. An individual may be called human but heshe may also be German, Jew, or American. Heshe can also be a Protestant, Catholic, or Moslem. People can also be categorized by social classes (upper-class, middle class, and lower class). Most of the time, these structural categories are more meaningful than morphological or physiological characteristics.

Variables like sexual orientation, cultural background, personal ethics, psychological development, class, and self-esteemed are also determinants of differentiation (in the case of women). Physiologically, women are the same but socially, women differ in preferences, attitudes, and gender identity. Hence, to universalize the concept of womanhood is to aggregate traits which are socially defined as feminine. For example, in some cultures, the concept of woman is synonymous with silence, kindness, subordination, and physical inferiority. These societies create a system of inequalities which follow the distinct definition of masculinity or femininity. For example, in the Yanomamo tribe in South America, women are considered spoils of war. Here, femininity is considered a function of masculinity.

The distinction between sex and gender begins with their definitions sex marks the distinction between women and men as a result of their biological, physical and genetic differences while gender refers to the economic, social and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female at a particular point in time. The dimensions of masculinity discussed in the text are suppression of emotions, men in charge, and recklessness. Examples of system of inequality and privileges interacting with gender are income disparities linked to job stratification and professional education. The income disparity between genders can be stemmed from the process of determining the quality of jobs and wages. This income disparity is considered wage discrimination that favors men over women.

Gender discrimination can be expressed through language. Grammatical genders, sometimes referred as noun classes, are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words. Every noun must belong to one of the classes. Now, if a language system distinguishes between masculine and feminine gender, then each noun belongs to one of these genders. Society uses grammatical genders to formalize the categories of man and woman.

Society can also use grammatical genders to reinforce inequality. For example, in the past, the media used the term bossy woman to describe a domineering, dangerous, and radical woman. Nowadays, this term has been expunged from the gender dictionary to emphasize gender neutrality.

Gender discrimination is almost always the thematic content of movies and advertisements. Women are depicted as sex instruments organized to gratify mens desires. They may also be portrayed as subordinated individuals. This infers that women are inferior to men. Feminists argue that these instances are expressions of a distorted social system. The social system is, by nature, a source of inequality.

Origin of Vietnam War
Vietnam was under French colonialism. For a period of nine years, from 1945 to 1954, the citizens of Vietnam started an anti-colonial war. By this time, United States was already an established state economically and was trying to assert its influence on liberation of other states to gain their independence. Towards this course, the United States gave a financial aid to Vietnam of 2.6 billion. After the defeat of French, a peace conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland and a deliberation to grant Vietnam independence was reached. At this moment, Vietnam was temporarily subdivided into north and south. The north was supporting the communist ideals while the south was non-communist. The Southern Vietnam under President Ngo Dinh Diem enjoyed a strong support from the United States and it was coerced by the United States not to participate in the unification elections of 1956.

This led to Communist led guerrillas from north in the name of Viet Cong staging invasion against the south. The United States government continued to support south by sending military advisors. By 1963, this number had grown to 16,300. However, the south continued to lose heavily to the north. Diems government faced resistance from even within its own administration. With determination to succeed, the United States military doubled its military actions by initiating air strikes on the land of northern Vietnam in 1965. By 1968, the ground forces from United States had reached 536,000 on this same year the Tet offensive by the forces from North Vietnam led many Americans back at home to start anti-war sentiment. The capture and execution of Diem came close to the assassination of President Kennedy in the US.

When President Richard Nixon took office, he campaigned for home based solutions in Vietnam for Vietnamese. He commissioned the withdrawal of American forces which left the South Vietnamese with greater responsibility of fighting their own war. This gave the Northern Vietnam forces a chance to continue overpowering South Vietnam. As a result, Nixon ordered for bombing of their supply bases in Cambodia in 1970 enact that was widely seen as a violation of Cambodian sovereign rights. Cambodia had for long maintained a neutral position throughout the war period. The antiwar sentiments and protests among the American citizenship increased rapidly especially within the young students of American college campuses. The pressure to bring the war to the end gained momentum day after the other with and after1968 the two embarked on search for a solution through diplomacy. In January of 1973, a consensus was arrived at for a complete removal of American soldiers. In return all American prisoners of war captured by the northern Vietnam forces were set free. This led to Southern Vietnam surrendering to Northern Vietnam and the two were united again as one nation. This was the longest war in the history of America which did cost close to 60,000 lives of American soldiers and about 2 million lives of Vietnamese.

This war had a lot of influence in shaping future politics and foreign policy of American government. Seven presidents, among them Truman, Roosevelt, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, And ford were involved directly in this war. As of today there is still debate of whether this war was justified. The protests against this war led to formation of War Powers Act in 1973 that requires for the president to receive clear approval from congress before sending troops to war in foreign lands. These protests has left a big mark for the country and foot prints to learn from the mistakes of its administration.

The expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark marked a milestone in the expansion of the United States. In one section of their extensive journals, Lewis and Clark outlined A Winter with the Mandans. This journal section proves crucial to understanding how Lewis and Clark developed diplomacy among the Native Americans and maintains historical significance related to the geographical, cultural, and political development of the United States.

Prior to the beginning of Lewis and Clarks travels, President Thomas Jefferson long considered sending a crew to explore the Missouri River and then move on to the Pacific. Thomas Jefferson was not the only one with his eyes beyond the Missouri. British explorer Alexander Mackenzie published a text outlining potential British exploration and settlement of the western frontier. To gain a step ahead of the perceived competition, Jefferson decided to expedite his original interest in the West and commissioned the expedition of Lewis and Clark. Even though some European groups had established trading relationships with the Native Americans in the West, none had made any official claims. Thus, Native Americans retained political dominance over the land. Jefferson wanted to be the first to make a claim, so the purpose of the Lewis and Clark mission was to proclaim American sovereignty over the area, prepare the way for American commerce with the tribes, and gather as much information as possible about the new land and the many Indian peoples who inhabited it.                      
By the winter of 1804 and 1805, Lewis and Clark had already run into some diplomatic trouble with Native Americans, and they still had a lot to learn if the expedition was to navigate successfully the turbulent waters of inter-and intratribal politics. A winter in the Mandan villages provided an invaluable crash-course. On October 27, 1804 Lewis and Clark reached the Mandan villages along the Missouri River. They depended on the Mandans for shelter during the harsh winter weather. Both Lewis and Clark recorded their experiences meeting and building relationships with Mandan chiefs. One of their most helpful interpreters was Sacagawea, who was married to a French trader Toussaint Charbonneau. As Lewis and Clark continued their journey throughout the West, Sacagawea was instrumental in interpreting the diplomatic intentions of Lewis and Clark to tribes. On April 7th, 1805, after learning about the cultures of the Mandans and neighboring tribes and assembling a crew of able interpreters, Lewis and Clark continued their journey.

A Winter with the Mandans has significance to the Atlantic World for a number of reasons. From a geographical standpoint, Lewis and Clarks account gave specific conditions of the terrain and climate of an area unknown to the United States government. This text also shows the intersection of Native American and non-Native American cultures. The particular missions of Lewis and Clark marked a change in political relations between sovereign Native American nations and the United States government. Another reason why Lewis and Clarks chronicle of their winter with the Mandans is important lies in its historical and cultural documentation concerning specific Native American groups.

A poison gas is any gas which is meant to be used in a war against an enemy to attack them. It upon inhalation affects enemy soldiers by either harassing them or killing them. It has been known for long but previously it wasnt used as weapon because it was considered uncivilized. There are a number of types of poison gases used. Firstly the types will be discussed and then we will shed light on how the poison gases were used in World War I.

Blister Gasses in which we can include the mustard gas which is one of the most lethal ones. This gas is odorless and takes around twelve hours to work. It remains several days on the ground. Most of the times its purpose is to incapacitate troops.

Choking gases are used to attack the respiratory of the enemy. It includes phosgene and chlorine. Its effect is towards the lungs of the victims leading them towards the slow death.

Nerve Gases are also used in war that usually damages the muscles and the nerves of the victims. As soon as the poison enters human blood the person dies in a few minutes. Examples include Tabun, Soman etc.

Vomiting Gases are used not for killing but for creating nausea, vomiting, sneezing etc at a severe level. They were basically developed to control different riots.

Tear gases are also used as a poisonous gas which causes eye irritation. As it name suggests it irritates eye so much that tears start coming out from the eye. Along with eyes it may also affect nose, throat, skin etc. Police and other law enforcement agencies usually use this kind of gas if they want people to leave the place and to stop riots.

Psychochemical gases are also one of the kinds. This gas directly affects the brain causing it to stop working or like short term memory losses. (Hub Pages, 2010)

These were some types of poison gases that actually are used in war fare to disturb and injure enemy soldiers and armies use various methods for gas attacks.

Poison gas in World War I
Poison gas as weapon was first used in World War I along with grenades, firearms and tanks. It was believed necessary by that time to use poison gas a weapon which was previously considered to be at an uncivilized position if an army uses poison gases. The killing by the use of poison gas was limited at that time and only 4 of the deaths were by the use of it.

The concept which is perceived by many is that Germans were the first to use poison gas as a weapon but that belief is wrong as the French were the first to use it. They used it against the Germans in the very first month (august 1914) of the battle when they fired tear-gas at them. Germans were the ones who then gave serious consideration to this new weapon conducted study and they were the ones who first used it at a big scale. (History learning site, 2010)

In October 1914, the Germans attacked by firing gas shells that had a chemical which caused sneezing. This was done against the French at Neuve Chapelle. This act was done to actually disturb the enemy soldiers so that they would leave their positions and get weakened, and not meant for killing them. After three months i.e. in January 1915 Germans for the first time used tear-gas. Another experiment was done against the Russians which didnt prove successful and then they tried again and came up with the improved tear gas against the French in March 1915.

The chlorine gas i.e. poison gas was first used by the Germans on 22nd April 1915. They heavily bombarded the gas at Ypres against the French and the Algerians. The gas is yellowish-green in color and when the clouds of it were seen by the French, they thought that an attack will follow. However it did not follow an attack rather it was the first time that chlorine was used as a weapon. There were severe effects of chlorine gas and upon inhalation enemy faced a major set back. It was an opportunity for the Germans to get to a decisive position but they were not actually prepared for it and the successful experiment came to Germans as a surprise. Although they proceeded reluctantly and were hesitant but they could have done better if they could prepare themselves for this. Still they get a good position and weakened the French and the Algerians. This use of gas was condemned by the neutral nations like USA and others. This was the start of the use of the gas which continued through out the war.

The Allies recovered from the damage and then British planned to respond to the act. They raised Special Gas Companies to develop a gas to be used in Loos in September 1915. The interesting part is that the word gas was not used by them and rather they refer the thing as accessories. British used pressurized cylinders for the purpose of release of the gas as like Germans did. They removed the cork when wind started blowing towards the enemy side but fate did not support them and so the wind changed its direction and started coming towards the British. This resulted in around 2000 casualties to the British. The act proved failure as more damages were done to the British.

Now it was known that there is a need of a better delivery system or we can say a better way to deliver or release the gas so the ones releasing will not be at the defeating side. Number of experiments was conducted for the issue to be solved and so people came up with other poison gases which can be used in war. That was the time when phosgene and the mustard gas were to use for war. Phosgene affected people after 48 hours of its inhalation so it is apparent that nothing can be done for it when its affect is felt and now it is too late. The mixture of chlorine and phosgene was used in war and was called white star mixture.

Mustard Gas was first used in war as a weapon in 1917 against the Russians at Riga. The gas was odorless and the effect of it was internal and external blisters after one is exposed to it for few hours. It was more difficult to protect oneself from mustard gas than the other gases.

The allies copied the use of mustard gas as they did with the previous ones i.e. the chlorine and the phosgene. In 1918 the poison gas was widely used as a weapon of the war. Chloropicrin and bromine were also developed. The French Army at some occasions used nerve gas also. Still the most used gases were mustard gas, chlorine gas and phosgene. Germans were the ones who used the gas at most. Their total usage was about 68000 tons preceding the French and the British which used 36000 tons and 25000 tons respectively.

There were a number of casualties caused by the use of poison gases but its effectiveness diminished slowly and in 1915 the number of deaths reported by the use of poison gases was rare. Gas was not the weapon in the war which proved the most deadly. There were a number of developments on it and so the developments for the protection of people against the gases. And it was frequently copied by the rivals so it did not give edge to any party.

Cotton wads were used for the protection against the first use of chlorine gas in Ypres. Around 100,000 wads were developed for the purpose. They were put on the face after dipping them into the bicarbonate of soda. Many other ways of fighting against the gases were used.

Conclusion
 So to conclude we can say that poison gas was first used as a weapon in the World War I. The damage of it was less than it was believed that it would be a major weapon of war. This was because as soon as the gas was developed the rivals started to make the protective instruments to protect themselves. And the use of the gas had also been copied many times. The total poison gas used in the war was around 129,000 tons. The total non-fatal casualties were around 1,205,655 and fatal were 91,198. The gas proved as one of the weapons which can actually be used in a war to weaken enemy and previous perception that the use of it was uncivilized was now not considered.

In the summer of 1964, Alessandro Giuliani, an old and partially lame professor of aesthetics white hair and mustaches, white suit, cane is thrown off a trolley on the outskirts of Rome after he comes to the defense of a young and semi-literate factory worker who has irritated the driver. Alessandro and Nicol, the boy, decide to make the very long journey into the mountains, on foot, as a defiant pilgrimage away from those things --worthless and imposed--that people allow to take the place of real life. In their trying walk the towns of Italy glittering below them in the warm summer air, the sea polished by a weightless fume of silver light the old man is moved to tell the story of his life of a youthful paradise instantly shattered by the First World War, of how he lost one family, gained another, and lost it as well. The boy is enthralled by the war and its spectacular events, by Alessandros privations, heroism, and adventures, and by the extraordinary beauty of the story and in its telling. At the end of the long walk, however, he comes to understand its deeper import, that love is superior to and greater than all the glories of civilization, but that each is heightened by the understanding of the other, and that even in the face of death, life can be made worthwhile if these things are made to run together seamlessly, like a song.

The novel begins (and ends) in 1964, with white-haired Professor of Aesthetics Alessandro Giuliani having a chance meeting with a young man chasing a train in Rome. As they walk together, Alessandro (almost always referred to by his first name in the book) tells the boy his life storya truly remarkable life story.

What makes Helprin such an outstanding author is not just his well-conceived story lines but also, or maybe even mostly, his stunning turns of phrase, his weaving of a philosophy, whether about the meaning of life, the importance of religion, the role of beauty, into the tale with words that make you feel more like youre looking at a great painting than reading a book.

We learn of Alessandros life from his time as a boy in Rome, his father a moderately successful attorney, through his service in World War I (which takes up most of the novel), and to the time of the conversation in which hes recounting his remarkable history.

Beside Alessandro, the book contains some remarkable characters
A hunchbacked near-dwarf who goes from being a scribe for Alessandros father to (after being put of out business by the invention of the infernal typewriter) having enormous impact on Italys war effort  in a hilarious, dangerous, and truly insane way.

A half dozen soldiers, each with his own quirks and personality, one of whom is willing to cut off his own leg in an attempt to be able to return to his family after serving on the front lines for a couple of years. (In typical Halperin style, all does not work out well for the soldier despite his extreme sacrifice.)

A series of women Alessandro meets, including the love of his life, about whom I cant say more without ruining the story for you.

The war story itself is remarkable, brilliant, and brutal with moments of hilarity arriving at most unexpected times.

From a scene in which Alessandros unit is sent to Sicily to arrest (or kill) deserters
He went ahead to find the path that, before the war, tourists and naturalists had worn into the rim of the crater. No one walking over the mountain could avoid it. Though Alessandro climed straight for the rim, it took him longer than he expected to get there. Lakes of fire in the crater far below turned over and boiled and were covered in hideous red scales and flakes as if they were the dried skin of a mythical animal. Now and then a line of fire would leap into the air and fall back, leaving an impression temporarily upon the molten lake from which it had sprung. The air that flowed past the rim was sulfurous and unbreathable, and the malevolent lakes had been working through the night for many thousands of years, scouts in a war so great and so deep within the earth that the surface was held in contempt.

From a scene in which Alessandro is looking at a painting by Raphael
Unlike the new paintings, with their disheveled and hallucinatory colors, each and every one of Raphaels brush strokes, all of his shining planes, the rendering of air in light  whether bright or subdued, whether of morning sky or evening star  was disciplined with an iron hand. Here were no strategems or conceits, nothing centrifugal, nothing wild, nothing without the rich harmony that seemed to be the world itself as seen in heavenly recollection. The one weight that aligned all the elements, and reconciled every contradiction and variation, was the burden of mortality.

From a scene in which Alessandro has been sent to a marble quarry and is working on a snowy night
Blinded by patterns of light and sound that grew ever more confusing and intense, the soldiers worked themselves up to a feverish pitch to match the pace of falling snow and racking pistons, and, caught in a thousand rhythms, Alessandro seemed to float. Dozens of slabs rode the aerial trams, flashing in and out of the smoke, light, and snow, crossing and intersecting as hammers and saws rang out against the rock. The music of his own heart and breathing, the deverishes of snow that sometimes blinded and sometimes entertained, the mournful steam whistles, the clatter of engines moving across rickety tracksthe weave here was as tight as it could be, tight enough to elevate the bodiless spirits that labored in it until they floated like swimmers. It had a life of its own, but that life was suddenly shattered when lightning struck amid the snow, homing for the iron that had been laboriously driven into high points. For half an hour hundreds of speechless soldiers were shelled by thunder and light that illuminated every snowflake and blinded them as it scourged the marble cliffs with brightness. The thunder rattled the heavy engines and the lightning made the fires beneath them seem dark and cool.

And from a conversation with a supervisor when Alessandro is forced to work in an Austrian palace
I have the impression, Klodwig stated, that the King of Italy may be rather ordinary, or even deprived. He doesnt have these things, does he.No, Alessandro said, but he has a special rubber throne with electric balls and hats that can resurrect dead ostriches.Electric balls, Klodwig asked, inching closer.Hoheit, do you know why crows are blackNo, I never thought of it.They taste lousy, and theyre black as a sure sign to predators that theyre crows, who will taste lousy.Why arent they yellowThey live in cold climates, and black absorbs heat. They dont need camouflage, so they can take advantage of the way their color soaks up the sunlight.Why do you ask me these questions Klodwig demanded.To remind you, Hoheit, not to argue with nature.

Intertwined among the war story, the love story, and the thoughtful consideration of relationships among children and parents, Helprin weaves a constant discussion of beauty and aesthetics. Whether in a description of the sea, a mountain, a painting, or even a battle scene, A Soldier of the Great War makes you consider and reconsider what is beauty and what about beauty is important.

Make no mistake Dont look for a happy ending. This book is not light, airy, and cheerful. It is primarily a war story and, having served in the Israeli Army and Air Force as well as the British Merchant Navy, Helprin is not one to sugarcoat the trials, horrors, and occasional minor success  even if only meaning survival from an apparently hopeless situation  which war encompasses.
Im not the type to cry in movies or over books, but A Soldier of the Great War pushed me to the edge of tears. Its rare that one finishes a work of fiction and remains unable to stop thinking about it for days or weeks afterward, but Helprins majestic novel has exactly that power.

Proof Through the Night Music and the Great War
By Glenn Watkins. Berkeley University of California Press, 2003
Composers, soldiers, politicians, citizens, and musicians left ample proof through the night of their patriotism and fervor in the First World War. Glenn Watkins has provided the most detailed study of the subject from a musical perspective yet to appear, and he has not confined himself to purely musical issues, for he confidently deals with racial, social, political, and other matters, which will surely enrich scholarship of the First World War when that scholarships vision strays away from the recounting of battles and confronts the impact of war on society and culture.

That culture is not an elitist concept (or is not a rarefied thing at one or two removes from the general populace) is most powerfully conveyed by one of the many revealing illustrations that appear in Watkinss book. Few parts of the book are more shocking than the chapters devoted to America. The combination of self-righteousness, xenophobia, racism, and pure distilled hatred make some European responses to war seem almost meek in comparison. Bearing in mind that America only joined the Allies in April 1917, and its principal experience of the war had been the admittedly provocative activities of German submarines, there had to be a long and carefully sustained promotion of war as the only viable way forward. One example of this was H. R. Hoopss propaganda poster of 1916 entitled Destroy This Mad Brute. A hideous gorilla wearing a spiked boche helmet with its back to the ruined cathedral at Rheims (one assumes) and other scenes of devastation looks straight at the observer, mouth wide open, slaver oozing out. In its left arm it grasps a bare-breasted maiden who covers her face in distress (the film King Kong owed a great deal to this poster) and in its right hand it bears a club. The words at the bottom of the poster are straightforward America Enlist, but the writing on the club is arresting it bears the one word Kultur (fig. 29, p. 248). This was not simply a battle for territory but a confrontation of Germanys cultural dominance and the aspirations of other countries. European culture needed to renew itself and there were many artists, at least in the early part of the war, keen to justify war, including the Italian Futurists, who called war the worlds only hygiene, and Marcel Duchamp who declared, We need the great enema in Europe. And, if its gonna be war, then if we need war, we need war (p. 14).

Proof Through the Night does not pretend to be, neither should it be, a systematic study of the effect of war on music and musicians. It is more an exploration through diverse perspectives of the turmoil of war and the attempts of musicians of all kinds to discover in their art a suitable response. Its emphasis is towards the cultural activities of the Allies, but this does not preclude chapters devoted to Germany-Austria.

The book begins with a prologue that explores intercultural issues, focusing on the internationally inclined figure of Romain Rolland. It includes the amusing story of Rolland and Richard Strausss dealings during the conflict. Both men were less disposed to chauvinism than many of their compatriots, but even Rolland was taken aback when Strauss blithely wrote of the possibility of inviting Rolland to Garmisch to witness diverse impressions of our people in time of war (p. 25). Rolland was amazed at Strausss aloofness and naivetr he wrote in his journal How little these poor Germans suspect of the state of mind in Europe (p. 25).

The next five sections of the book deal with Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany-Austria, and the United States of America in turn. Watkinss range of reference is extraordinary. One is left with the most vivid impression of their responses to war from the most distinguished composers to the men in the trenches.

Among the most fortunate individuals at the start of the war, or so one might say with hindsight, were the four thousand or so Englishmen who found themselves in Germany at the start of the war. They were rounded up and incarcerated at the site of a racetrack near Berlin. In time, they formed orchestras and educational groups, and seem to have had a culturally enriching time. They played Richard Wagner and Ralph Vaughan Williams and explored early music. Ironically, many of these men had been in Germany to attend the Bayreuth Festival (p. 33). Their freedom found few parallels elsewhere. It became intensely difficult for the Allies to play Wagner. The French had rapidly to relinquish their infatuation with the composer (having only just enjoyed the first French performance of Parsifal) and rediscover the Frenchness of their own music. In America, the Metropolitan Opera cancelled its entire German season when the call to arms came and the house had to fill numerous now blank evenings (p. 309). Beethoven was problematic, for his music was so popular and universal in its appeal it was inconceivable that audiences would forgo such staple fare. One neat but preposterous solution was the claim, seriously made at the time, that Beethoven was in fact of Flemish descent. A more common view, however, was that there were acceptable German masters from the distant past who represented a universal humanity. So while Mozart and Beethoven were retained, Wagner and contemporary German music were not. The Germans reacted in a similar way. Edward Elgar had enjoyed great popularity there prior to the First World War, but during it and tot many decades after, his music disappeared from the repertoire (it has resurfaced in the last few years).
Singing our way to victory French cultural politics and music during the ...