History

Professor Orens holistic approach in the study of Western civilization may be described as discontinuous and almost rhetorical. It is discontinuous in the sense that analysis of relevant subjects (for example, the idea of scientific revolution) is assumed to be related or correlated with the collective action of individuals. For example, the scientific revolution was the result of innovation and modernistic thinking hence, the work of various philosophers, artists, and social thinkers. Indeed, according to Professor Orens, it is impossible to isolate the study of Western civilization without due reference to its creators and actualities. Creators refer to the initiators of change  the inventors of ideas and concepts. Actualities may refer to the historical milieu to which the innovations are located. Creators and actualities are motors of cultural development.
   
The approach is almost rhetorical in the sense that analysis of ideastopics are imbued with rhetorical questions  questions which encourage the human mind to criticize, synthesize, and absorb relevant ideas. Indeed, throughout the professors lecture, topics are presented thematically. For example, Professor Orens discussion on Marxian philosophy was separated from the discussion of pure atheism (which was advocated by Nietzsche) and naturalism (Darwin). As such, Professor Orens regarded Marxian philsophy was not the outcome of atheism  atheism being in existence for more than 500 years  it was the antecedent of crude socialism. Naturalism was also presented as the antecedent of modern scientific thinking. Atheism based on naturalism was only a consequence of naturalism, not otherwise. Thematic presentation of historical events seemed to the common learner an effective way of dealing with academic uncertainty.
   
Professor Wades lecture is overtly comprehensive and narrowly specific. A historical event (for example, the discussion of Russian history) is assumed to be a starting point of microcosmic relations. For example, the Russian Revolution may be viewed as a shift of political and economic ideology. Indeed, the Russian Revolution became the formal ideological base of other historical events (for example, the foundation of the German Communist Party).
   
Professor Wades approach is overtly comprehensive because it tackled the primary variables of causation (and its antecedents). A primary cause, as one observed, is assumed to be inherently related to other probable causes. For example, the emergence of Russian socialism was the result of economic depression, Czarist oppression, and political turmoil in urban centers. As such, the overthrow of the Russian monarchy can be attributed to two types of causes immediate and indirect causes.
   
The approach is narrowly specific because it tackled the specifics of a particular topic. For example, Professor Wade discussion of the Russian Revolution was divided into several parts 1) a discussion of indirect causes, 2) the outbreak of the Revolution, and 3) the outcomes of the Revolution. Indeed, to substantiate primary knowledge, there is a need (as observed in the lecture) to categorically differentiate actual and immediate sense of reification. A historical event must be in connivance with prevailing ideology  as ideology often determines the essence or nature of an event.

1.a. How did the romantics view of nature differ from that of the philosophes
The philosophes view of nature was that of a huge orderly machine, in which each part was a cog in the wheel. The philosophes believed that the universe could be understood and explained with the help of reason alone. The romanticists differed from the philosophes in two fundamental respects. The romanticists believed in the individuality of each person, and in the place of intuition and feeling in understanding the nature of things as much as of reason.

The works of romantic writers emphasized the role of emotion, feeling and imagination. The German writer Goethes novel The Sorrows of Young Werther exemplifies this focus on these traits in a dramatic fashion. Other writers who followed him produced more poignant tales that emphasized this approach.

Similarly, the thirst for individualism in the romanticists was evident both in their living styles, and their literary and artistic creations. They sported long hair and beards, and wore outrageous clothes, revolting against the norms laid down by society. Some even experimented with drugs to alter their consciousness levels. Stories from the past and narrations of unusual or abnormal events caught the imagination of the people. All of this clearly indicated a shift from the earlier emphasis on reason and tradition.

The famous line we murder to dissect contained in Wordsworths poem The Tables Turned reflects this attitude. Dissection represents experimentation. When this experimentation becomes so devoid of human feelings that a person commits a murder to obtain a body for the purpose, one can understand the depravation. The word Murder in this line also possibly refers to the murder of the finer instincts and of the soul. Thus cold blooded reasoning, devoid of feelings and emotion, stoops to low levels, and kills the individual.

1b. How did Einsteins theory overturn the commonsense picture of the universe
According to Einsteins theory, Space and Time are not independent of the observer, and are therefore not absolute, but are relative to the observer. As Einstein himself explained, the earlier view that if all matter disappeared from the universe, time and space would still remain, was challenged by Einsteins view, who said that these would also disappear when all observers disappeared. As we have seen earlier, the philosophes view of the world was based on an orderly and rational universe that was conceptualized as a huge machine. Einsteins theory stated that this is not so, as it is relative to the observer.

1c. How did Werner Heisenberg undermine the confidence of science to discover all the laws that govern the cosmos
The German scientist Werner Heisenberg postulated the uncertainty principle, which stated that it is impossible to observe all phenomena precisely. For example, it is impossible to determine the path of an electron, because the very act of observing disturbed it. Although Heisenbergs postulate concerned the path of an electron directly, it changed the general view of scientists about the immutable nature of physical phenomena and conclusions derived using observations.

2a. Karl Marxs view of history and human society
According to Karl Marx, history is characterized by the development of class antagonisms. Marx thus sees the history of human society as one of conflict between various groups. The groups themselves changed from time to time and epoch to epoch. One common feature among these class struggles was the exploitation of one group by another. Thus history of humans is characterized by opposing classes and the exploitation of one class by another.

Marx believed that a society free of such exploitation is the only society that could insure the freedom of the individual, and therefore the traditional property relations in society should be broken in order to achieve true freedom for each individual. In the ideal society conceived by Marx, everyone shared equally the ownership of property, labor and profits.
Marx believed that such a society could be established only by rejecting all established values and eternal truths. There are no such absolute truths, and society has so far been afflicted by the malady of carrying over the old notions to the new order, every time a change was brought in. Therefore, according to Marx, rejection of the established order and all the traditional notions is essential to achieve the above objective of freedom for the individual. Moreover, the only means of achieving this is through force.

2b. How did Charles Darwin explain the evolution of living things including human beings
According to Charles Darwin, life evolved gradually over long period of time from lower forms of life to higher forms of life. This process consisted of a natural selection process in which the fittest survived. This ensured that each subsequent form of life was superior to the earlier ones. Darwin presented evidence of this in a highly organized manner.

2c. How did social Darwinists apply Darwins theory to human society
Social Darwinists applied the theory of organic evolution to human society. This actually represented a misuse and wrong application of a scientific principle to an area in which it has little relevance. The basic idea propounded by these social Darwinists was that human society evolved over a period of time. As part of this process, only the most fit and desirable human elements survived and gained superiority. Extreme nationalists and racists carried this idea too far and argued that races and nations were constantly engaged in a struggle to eliminate the weak elements. The German general Friedrich von Bernhardi proposed that wars are an essential part of this process in which weaker nations and societies were eliminated. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, a Briton settled in Germany, argued that this was true of races, and the only pure race was the Aryan, represented by the Germans and the Western culture. Thus social Darwinists misused the concept of evolution to breed international and interracial hatred.

In the history of the Soviet Union political leaders occupy a special place. From Joseph Stalin and to Leonid Brezhnev, political leaders in the Soviet Union were always surrounded by a kind of mystical atmosphere, which turned them into superhumans and granted them unlimited opportunities and rights. In many instances, political cults were the products of the authoritarian regime that reflected in the way leaders behaved, as well as the policies which they promote in political, social, cultural, and economic spheres. Where Joseph Stalin exemplified terror and coercion, and where Nikita Khrushchev was the example of absolute economic and political non-professionalism, Leonid Brezhnev became the author of the real socialism, which had to become the source of liberalization but, instead, threw the country down into an economic and social abyss.
   
Stalins ability to utilize the benefits of the existing political institutions and to personalize his control over them became the source of terror and coercive power, as well as the cause and the basis for the development of the most ruthless authoritarian regime in the 20th century. As a Soviet leader, Stalin sought to justify his coercion and terror with the help of Marxist principles, which positioned integrity and political commitment in society as the fundamental elements of successful economy. However, Stalins economic and political initiatives were hardly ever successful. In political contexts, Stalin was able to centralize personal power and to develop his own cult. In economics, industrialization and collective farming had to speed up the process of achieving Five-Year goals. Coercion and power for Stalin had to establish discipline in economics and labor as such modernization in Stalins eyes was meaningless without terror. Joseph Stalins leadership led to the development class rage among the Soviet people, but he also tried to protect the Soviet national interests by creating a political and military alliance with Germany Stalin always feared that the West would destroy the Soviets before he finished the process of industrialization. Unfortunately, and at the same time, he himself acted against the international and military interests of his country, as long as his terror destroyed the most prominent military leaders and did not leave the Soviet army any chance to withstand the political and military threats that were coming from other states.
   
The death of Stalin in 1953 was met with a painful relief. Stalins death put an end to the continuous terror and dethroned his political cult. Nikita Khrushchev came to emphasize the meaning of economic and political reforms and, in distinction from Stalin, did not view power and coercion as the best tools of modernization. In the history of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev was the first to prioritize the production of consumer goods and housing construction. He also wanted to increase agricultural production and saw consolidation of smaller farms into larger units as an effective economic solution.

The cultivation of semiarid lands in Central Asia and Siberia became the distinctive feature of Khrushchevs economic vision. In politics, Khrushchev became the author of the thaw and rehabilitated the majority of Stalins victims. However, in many aspects, Khrushchevs vision of leadership was similar to that of Stalin he did not try to eliminate the principles of authoritarian ruling, nor did he abandon the role and importance of heavy industry in economy and he also continued to invest into arms race and military research . With his open contempt to professionals and the lack of political and economic knowledge, Khrushchev quickly lost his prestige, leaving the Soviet Union with disrupted economy and bifurcated bureaucratic apparatus  the issues, which had to be but were not addressed by his follower Leonid Brezhnev.
   
Brezhnevs leadership was associated with the false vision of real socialism society was tired of waiting for innumerous social and economic benefits to fall down on their heads, and the Soviet leaders decided to persuade the Soviet people that what they living in was nothing else but real socialism. Insignificant economic reforms and relative economic liberalization proposed by Khrushchev were soon forgotten and Brezhnev brought the country back into the atmosphere of centralized planning. Brezhnev did not try to change the structure of political institutions in the country but favored the growth of the countrys bureaucracy. The functions and roles of institutions and ministries under Brezhnev were not limited to those of any government but had to control every element of economic performance.
In the Soviet economy, Brezhnev failed to pursue the principles of consumer production  the shortage of the basic consumer goods turned into a notorious tradition. Agriculture suffered the consequences of Khrushchevs misbalanced economic vision, which Brezhnev was not able to address. The standard of living in the Soviet Union became even more problematic than a decade before, and by the end of Brezhnevs leadership, the growth of black markets and the failure of economic reforms turned into the distinctive features of Brezhnevs legacy in the U.S.S.R.
   
In the history of the Soviet Union leaders occupy a special place. Surrounded by a kind of mystical atmosphere, Soviet leaders actively promoted authoritarianism to preserve their political power. More often than not, their political, economic, and social ideas and initiatives were the products of absolute non-professionalism and political short-sightedness. Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev were as similar as they were also different. Although not all of them pursued the principles of terror and coercion, and although some of them tried to reform the stagnated economy, all soviet leaders remained increasingly committed to the authoritarian political tradition and did not leave the soviet population a single chance to improve the conditions of their living.

Rennison and Welchans report on intimate partner violence is informative on the prevalence of intimate partner violence based on gender, race and ethnicity, age, household income, marital status, home ownership, among other factors from 1993 and 1998. When defining intimate partners, Rennison and Welchans (2000) refer to current or former spouses as well as current or former girlboyfriends with the relationship being of the same or different gender.
Report summary
    Women experienced higher rates of violence whether it was homicide or simple assault than men. According to race and ethnicity, intimate partner victimization among the blacks was appreciably higher than in all other races over the same time span. Even among the blacks, women experienced higher rates of violence than men although black men experienced higher rates of violence than men of other races.
    Violence against intimate partners according to this report shows that it is quite low for persons aged below 16 years or above 50 years. It is more common in persons aged 20-24 years again women experiencing higher rates of violence than men in the same age bracket. Household income data indicate considerably higher rates of intimate partner violence among women living in households with low incomes as compared to women living in high income households. Household income is not related to violence against males.
    Persons who are divorced or separated encountered more violence regardless of gender with never married persons following. May be stable marriages are a sign of low or no partner violence. Living in an own house is linked with low violence rates in both men and women whereas living in urban and suburban areas is related with high violence rates. Overall, women report violence than men and consideration of intimate partner violence as a private matter hinders this.
Conclusion
    With intimate violence mainly against women as per this report showing a decreasing trend from 1993 to 1993, would it not have been better for Rennison and Welchans to explore the reason behind this.

 Social interrelationships exist in a dynamic pattern and are continuously developing based on distinct culture, politics, traditions, customs, and beliefs. Such social connections are being classified by means of terminologies especially in the event that a person is biologically (blood) or lawfully (marriage) related with another person. Kinship then exist in a variety of classification in terms of its wide range and scope of relationship that a person or culture may accept as its own as well as the limitations that can be included or excluded inside a particular kinship classification (Barnes, 296-299).
    Kinship has long been associated in the study of anthropology as it largely discusses the principles of organizing persons and individuals putting them into social groups, specific and general roles, categories, and genealogy. Such organization is usually classified as either biologically related or relationship that existed through lawful merging or marriage. Kinship creates bonds that are then putting a specific obligation between related individuals which are then perceived to be much stronger compared to persons that are totally strangers to each other as presented by Confucius filial piety.
    Early kinship studies were done and established by Lewis Henry Morgan in his book published in 1871. Morgan asserted that even without the existence of biological relationship, one may still consider another as a kin. Focusing more on kinship terminologies, Morgan discovered that there exist a descriptive and classificatory kinship terminology. Morgan stated the difference between the two types of kinship terminologies in a way that descriptive terminologies are used for a single type of relationship such as the use of the word brother in most English societies that indicates a son of the same parent. However, that brother could be a mothers brothers son or a fathers sisters son such that the word cousin is used to classify the type of brother one is referring to.
    More developments in the study of kinship brought advancements in understanding a much wider view of how kinship works in most societies. The concept of kinship as a system brought even more ideas and principles that established major arguments in terms of identifying and classifying a kin. Patterns of kinship in most societies have been observed and that strong relationships between kinship categories are found to be related with patterns of marriage, including its forms, types and restrictions. It therefore created a much clearer perspective in viewing incest as well as other limitations as to the acceptance of a particular individual to be married to another (Read, 239-267).
    However, several inconsistencies in defining kinship categories as well as putting the proper terminology based on the existing relationship brought several conflicting theories in the study of kinship systems. Dubious inferences about kinship systems have existed upon understanding the complexity of kinship categories. George Murdock had created a method of addressing these issues by compiling data in testing a theory about universal human kinship by means of terminologies influencing behavioral patterns and other existing social differences. Murdock proceeded on the view that the psychological chronology of kinship systems are being brought by the ego and the nuclear family up to varying forms of the extended family. Levi-Strauss place a different approach in addressing such conflicts by means of looking on global patterns on kinship but focusing more on elementary forms of kinship in a way that families are connected with marriage and other modes of exchange such as symmetric and direct, generalized exchange, or reciprocal delay (White and Johansen, 14).
    Kinship terminologies has been classified into seven common types such as the Iroquis (bifurcate merging) kinship, Crow kinship (expanded bifurcate merging), Omaha kinship (modified expanded bifurcate merging), Dravidian kinship and (classificatory with modified bifurcate merging), Eskimo kinship (lineal), Hawaiian kinship (generational system), and Sudanese kinship (descriptive system).
    Kinship and its terminologies are being influenced by the type of relationship that exists whether it could be biological or of marriage descent type. Kinship identification does not necessarily mean that there exist a biological relationship between them. Biological relationships are usually considered immediate and have closer ties and bonds. It also requires proper kinship terminology as one pertaining to be superior while the other be the inferior part. The need of having a genitor (male) and genetrix (female) in conception must be established.
    Kinship established by marriage creates a wider range of relationship with each of the immediate family or clan members. A lawful merger of two individuals, marriage produces a more expanded kinship terminology based on the existing biological relationship of each group. Kinship through marriage have a vaguer definition of relatives pertaining to both sides of the families. However, with the use of descriptive terms, relatives from other parties can be identified in most cases.
    A particular kinship categories and terminologies can be acquired by a certain tribe or family and can transform into another category depending on the influence and its assertion to the tribe (Gifford, 190-194). One good example is when a clan or tribe is weak, it usually exhibits a Dakota-Iroquois type not considering the sex to which the descent is reckoned. If the clan develops and further exert and assert its influence over time, it changes into the Crow type in the matrilineal society or into the Omaha type in a partrilineal society.
    Dwight Read researched on the formal analysis of kinship terminologies and its relationship and to what it constitute to kinship. The research gave a better understanding, with the use of cultural perspectives, of who will be accepted as a relative or kin. It discussed and elaborated the inability of kinship terminologies based on social categories as well as kinship terminologies based on classification of genealogically specified relationships coming from the genitor and genetrix in formally analyzing kinship terminologies as a whole. Read reached a resolution on the issue by means of viewing kinship terminology in a perspective of a structured, symbolic system that allows both calculus symbols and rules of instantiation in giving empirical contents to those symbols (Read, 239-267). In conclusion, an individuals kin can be determined with the use of symbol structure together with its instantiation.
    Considering all the types of kinship classifications presented, it only shows that there exist a rather huge and wide relationships and interrelationships between individuals from the nuclear family and even on the extended and related families. One particular relationship can be considered different from the other even if one perceives it coming from the same origin. Kinship terminologies are rather very limited in a sense that only few established terms are being used to identify relationships that are considered by the society. In most types of kinship classification, terms being used are mostly descriptive and not fully classificatory at all. It means that most societies would rather consider all mothers son or fathers son your brother rather than defining differently depending on the type of biological or marriage relationship. Most societies tend to have limited terms to be used in kinship systems such that they are sometimes avoiding complexity and having a hard time calling each of the different relative or family member with a different term. Moreover, most societies tend to establish themselves starting from the nuclear family or to wider denomination based on extended or families from marriage descent thus, incorporating limited identification system for each member of the clan or family.
    Another reason as to why there are different conceivable genealogical relationships considering the egos and its alters with a limited number of terminologies that can be used is the limitations presented by the overall structural aspect of a tribe or a particular clan. This principle generally incorporates the idea of diminishing kinship as generations passes by. For example, the mother of your mother would just simply be referred as your grandmother and that your grandmothers mother would be your great grandmother. However, your great grandmothers mother as well as her mother would only be referred by adding great before the word great. The same thing goes with appendicular family line like your uncle and aunt. If they are of marriage descent, you just identify their family members just as the same yours like for example, your fathers brother is considered your uncle and their male cousins would also be considered as your uncle in some societies their fathers will also be considered as your grandfather even if it is just the brother of your grandfather. This creates inconsistencies with the terminologies as their fathers are not your grandfather anymore.
    Kinship terminologies are usually created by traditions and is adopted by succeeding generations. Inserting and asserting new kinship terminologies would rather be an experimental approach without any assurance that the alteration of the social kinship terminologies will be accepted and adopted by the society you wished to modify.

The Counterlife is thought to be a meaningful novel to Philip Roth as it effectively delivers his personal questions regarding his true identity being a member of Jewish-American race.  The main character Henry Zuckerman plays as his model, and the protagonists search for the meaning of his existence being a ma, a Jew, and a human being believably reflects those of him.  Perhaps not all of the authors experiences are depicted though, but the thoughts that come to Philip Roths mind are successfully delivered.

 The essence of The Counterlife novel, which is life, death and counterlife, along with the issue of a mans journey in search of his meaning and importance, would not be a success if the author Philip Roth is not that good enough in making almost realistic fiction.  The thin line between reality and fantasy overcomes Roths searching through his alter ego Henry Zuckerman, the protagonist in the story, and Nathan Zuckerman, the younger brother of Henry, who acts as the alter ego of the protagonist.

 The Counterlife discusses taboo topics such as sex life of the middle-aged characters that young minds would not be ready to perceive.  However, the representation could not be viewed as vulgar and pornographic.  As a result, the novel still possesses the quality that majority of its audience would surely enjoy.  Moreover, the content about religious matters such as Zionism and Judaism, the transition of the characters beliefs and principles following his soul searching, and the discussion concerning Jewish  American custom and culture makes the book informative, educational and more commendable to examine.

Book Summary
 The first chapter sets in Basel.  Nathan Zuckerman mourns while recalling his Brother Henrys memories as the latter did not survive at the heart bypass surgery.  Before the operation takes place, Henry suffered impotency believably because of his continuous heart medications.  As Nathan recalls, Henry has to undergo heart treatment and the drugs that he was religiously taking could be the nearest possible cause of Henrys impotency.

Eventually, Henry dies from the complications while physicians were trying to cure him through heart bypass.  Nathan as a responsible brother wants to give him a eulogy but fails to do so.  Thus, he makes a letter on which the disclosure about their adulterous conduct and sexual escapades are revealed.  Before the chapter closes, Nathan remembers Henrys affair with his dental assistant at the height of his denial about impotency.

 In second episode, which sets in Judea, the story revolves about Henry who wanted to live his life to the fullest and eager to fulfill his mission being a Jew.  The difference between American Jew and Israeli Jew is discussed.  He moves to Israel where he believes that a true blue Jew truly belongs in here.  Nathan goes after him in Israel and started tracing where he exactly is because he is so much worried about Henry knowing that he leaves his wife and kids just to follow his instinct.  It is also clear in this chapter that Henrys decision is self-urged to be a part of a Zionism movement in Jewish homeland.  The heart condition of Henry and his death, as formerly given, is neither mentioned nor hinted in this chapter.

 In Aloft chapter, Nathan still narrates his travel experience as he heads back to England from Israel.  He put it in paper.  In here, it also details the colorful and exciting part of the book as Nathan encountered a supposedly plane accident and nearly hijacking incident both in the same trip.  This moment brings childhood memories to Nathan where he and Henry used to play exactly like this.

 Chapter four Gloucestershire sets another twist and turn in the story.  Says in this episode, it is Nathan who actually dies from heart bypass operation after failing to be cured from so much medication that also caused Nathans impotency.  The heart treatment for Nathan is not successful.  Nathan eventually dies.  Henry could not overcome his grief and could not afford to find words in the eulogy.  After the last salute for Nathan, Henry goes to Nathans house to recall his brothers memories.  There he finds out an untitled epistle written by his brother.  The bizarre thing for this is that the epistle that Henry discovered is no other than The Counterlife novel.

 Fifth chapters title is the only title that is not a place unlike the previous four chapters.  Christendom chapter provides the concluding part of the novel.  From chapter two where Nathan heads back to England, he is now finally home with his young wife.  Henry in here is still alive, and the impotency dilemma is discussed once again, the circumcision as part of Jewish culture, as well as Nathans wife fertility and point of views with regards to all of these things.  Moreover, Anti-Semitism and societys discrimination are other problems that the Zuckermans are arguing.

About the Author
Philip Milton Roth has been one of the well-acclaimed honorable American novelists of the literary fiction genre.  He obtains numerous awards, and one of them is the Pulitzer Prize, which was given to him in 1997 for his American Pastoral novel.  His other awards were the PENFaulkner Awards for Fiction which he won three times, the Best Book of the Year recognized by the United Kingdoms prestigious award giving bodies WH Smith Literary Awards for his The Human Stain novel, and received twice both the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Award.

Most of Roths novels explore the topic of Jewish and American lives for his characters mainly because he considered himself a descendant of this combined race as he really is.  He receives publics approval and appreciation after he launched his first ever novel entitled Goodbye, Columbus in 1959.  It has been incontestably continued up to this date as his theme gets more and more interesting.

Philip Roth champions the semi-autobiographical kind of literary piece.  Because of this, he makes a niche of his own for magically intertwining the connection between reality and fiction without even noticing their distinction.  The making of an almost real life character  narrators such as David Kepesh, Alexander Portnoy, Philip Roth the character and his favorite Nathan Zuckerman captivates the attention and curiosity of his audience as well as his critics around the world.

The Zuckermans Characters
 The Zuckerman characters starts to appear as Nathan Zuckerman existed in the 1979 novel The Ghost Writer novel although a glimpse of him could also be read at the My Life as a Man in 1974.  After this, the full blown series of his life story was presented in nine different and sometimes sequential books of Philip Roth.  The existence of Zuckermans ends in his 2007 book Exit Ghost.  Believably, Nathan Zuckerman mostly functioned as an alter ego in which the authors thoughts and principles are reflected through this fictional character.

The success of this protagonist makes Roth popular and financially successful although it somehow encompassed criticisms and intrigue because of some scandalous portrayal of true life experiences.  It motivates Philip Roth to expand the existence of this well-known character.  Hence, he develops another character related to it and named Henry Zuckerman, the younger brother of Nathan.
Henry Zuckerman is the main protagonist of the novel The Counterlife.  Although at some point, Nathan and Henrys importance in the story provides equal weight the narrative tackles most of Henrys life, thoughts and adventure.  As usual, Nathans existence only provides as Henrys alter ego.

Book Review
The title itself, The Counterlife, offers a thought-provoking meaning.  From understanding the entire novel, one could say that the counterlife or the alternative life is not only presented to either of the two Zuckermans.  It is equally given to both of them as the story portrays their lives, deaths and the life beyond the death of one.

Discussing topics such as middle-age crisis particularly sex life crisis of a middle-aged man, beliefs, religion and activism are the major issues of this novel.  For the middle age crisis, the situation where a man begins to have sexual malfunction could only denote as the beginning of their ending.  Since a man is sexual by nature, their sexual activity is their recognized life that when it fails could only mean death to them.  The symbolism of penile impotency also provides an intellectual representation pertaining to ones counterlife.

    Beliefs, religion and activism as another issues emerge in the novel, Philip Roth surpass the challenge of putting them altogether even with the presence of taboo discussions.  It could also be a part of mans middle age crisis to embrace his newly found principles at the expense of his present lifestyle and status.  To some, this is called soul-searching.  Henry or Nathan comes to the point where they wanted to leave their American identity and follow the traditional Jewish custom, which probably Philip Roths biggest frustration.

Although personal and sexual lives of the characters are mostly the issue, the book may still be a very good influence to the Jews especially to the ones in modern generation who may see himself unfaithful to their beliefs and religion.  The death, life and counterlife theme could be reflected to the chapter two alone where Henry wishes to be a part of a politically motivated religious movement in the homeland of Jews, the Israel.  The books existence might not be called a Jewish book but really one of the important materials on understanding Jewishs norms and Zionism beliefs and principled actions.  Roth should be applauded for bringing this into light.

It might be so much confusion to the readers how could the story evolves like that allowing the twist among Nathan and Henrys lives.  The dramatic manifestation of mysterious existence of one where in fact one is already dead at the beginning of the novel, and resurrects to make the other one face the same situation is highly artistic.  There is no other author who can make such kind of transition rather than Philip Roth himself who at some minutes a perfect resemblance of his own character Nathan Zuckerman.

    The success of the book owes the author to his own intellect focusing on real life dilemma and places mixing up with fictional characters that is set in an unexplained sequence of events.  Through offering the mid-life crisis of Nathan and the counterlife of Henry and  or vice versa, the twist creates two separate fictional realities yet somehow intertwines.  The overall context of the book creates a positive outlook more than that of gloominess even though deaths of the protagonists became the chief instrument performing such life cycles depiction partly because of some funny scenes which includes sex-life or sex-less life of the characters.

The Native Americans (aboriginals) are the indigenous peoples from the Northern America who existed in the pre-Columbian period. These people comprise a large number of various tribes and ethnic groups, some of which still exist. Since the beginning of colonization of America by the Europeans, cultures and lives of the aboriginals have been influenced and changed. Subsequently, the numbers of the natives were then reduced greatly, the fact attributed to infectious diseases, displacement and warfare. Conflicts and misunderstandings between the different cultures of the Native Americans, Europeans and other cultures were then eminent due to cultural differences (Fisher, 1985).
However, the colonization did not last since different colonies formed alliances and revolted against Great Britain in the late 18th century. This revolution, though, was the beginning of a great strife for the natives. The leaders of the colonies George Washington and Henry Knox came up with an idea of preparing the aboriginals for American-hood by civilization. The assimilation of these natives then became paramount throughout the American administration (Fisher, 1985). This assimilation was provided in order to create space for the American expansion under the Manifest destiny ideology that had become a national philosophy in the American movement. Consequently, OSullivans Manifest destiny was used as a justification for the westward expansion of the United States which had serious consequences for the indigenous Americans, who were forced to relocate further to the west.
In 1830 president Andrew Jackson and the Congress passed the Indian Removal Act that led the relocation of thousands of Native Americans from the east to the west despite the decrees passed previously by the Marshall Court in Georgia. This policy was however opposed by Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen. The act nevertheless came into frorce and gave the government power that led to a series of negotiated treaties for relocation of the natives. However, many natives remained in the east and formed tribal groups, though pressure was mounted on their leaders to sign the removal treaties. The removal of the Cherokee from the Northern Mississippi in 1838 was one of the great relocations that led to the Trail of Tears after the signing of the dubious second treaty after the Cherokee Treaty of New Echota. This relocation left thousands of natives dead due to diseases, exhaustion and starvation along the way (Williams, 2008). Other tribes like the Sauk and Fox, who had resettled to the west of Mississippi, also went back under the leadership of Black Hawk in 1831, to reclaim their rights for homes to the east of the river. Their efforts, however, were not fruitful and they relocated back to Iowa. However they made another attempt in the winter of 1831-32 that resulted in war, which caused  great losses to the Sauk people and forced them to retreat to the north.
The transportation revolution during the period 1815-1840
The period 1815-1840 in American was also known as the era of welfare and a period of great transformations and industrialization for America. However, the financial crisis of 1819, Panic of 1819, changed the perspective of Americas economy. The Transportation Revolution at this time was in the wake of the American industrialization and the western expansion and urbanization. This period was marked by the establishment of factories, industries and new inventions, focused on improving communication, time saving and efficiency in transportation (Sydney, 2006). The transport revolution in the beginning of 1830s saw the emergence of new forms of transportation like canals, roads, bridges, clipper ships, steam power and railroads. According to Sydney (2001)
Some of the developments include the building of the Erie Canal near New York, opened in 1825, the construction of a highway across America, the National Road in 1811 till the early 1800s, the introduction of a steamship, the Clermont, on the Hudson River by Livingston, which monopolized the ferry service there until 1824 and led to construction of more canals, the chartering in 1828 of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and the launching of the clipper ship in 1845 by John W. Griffiths, which further became instrumental during the gold rush period. (p.76)
This revolution was a great contribution to the American economy and saw the economy burst from the previous financial crisis. It led to the rapid growth of cities and towns that had just been absorbed, with population increasing from 6 of people in 1820 to 20 in 1860. The creation of railroads aided the relocation of new settlers to the west and movement of western farm produce to markets. The growth of new markets, the expansion into new farms and the creation of new factories became rampant in the peripherals of America (Sydney, 2006). This therefore, created a good foundation for the development of an integrated American economy before the beginning of World War 1. Due to this, the great scale of capital investment at that time that led to the economic growth and even establishment of banks. Different tribes intermingled at this point due to the cross-country migration of settlers and workers to industries and farms. Politically the revolution enabled America to acquire new territories and also develop them. This became the period of great political changes with the opposition to the methods that used for acquisition.
The MexicanAmerican War
      The MexicanAmerican War led between 1846 and 1848 was an armed conflict between Mexico and the United States. The war was led in the dawn of the US  seizure of Texas claimed to be owned by Mexico in 1845. However, the genesis of the Mexican-American War can be backtracked to the 1836 when Texas claimed its independence from Mexico. After the 1836 duel and independence of Texas, the United States, Great Britain, and France offered Texas diplomatic recognition and thus prevented Mexico form engaging Texas. This victory, however, did not ring well with the Mexicans, who vehemently refused to recognize Texas as a republic on its own (Haberle, 2003).
After Texas declared its independence, it tried to forge a way to joining the United States but could not, due to the American diplomatic ties with Mexico. However, after the election of James K. Polk a pro-annexation candidate in 1845, Texas was declared a member state of the United States. Immediately after Texas had joined the United State, a dispute began over the Texas southern boarder (Haberle, 2003). This was caused by the fact that the claim concerning the Rio Grande boundary by the Texans had not been included in the annexation resolution due to the failure of the Treaty in the Senate, which, however, did not stop president Polk from vehemently claiming it. Due to this, troops were sent to the area by both countries with an intention to protect their interest, which sparked a war. After the occupation of the boarder by  the troops both from America and Mexico, a declaration of war was set into motion in 1846 by the American Congress after Captain Seth Thornton was attacked by the Mexican troops (Winders, 1997).
The declaration of war was however opposed greatly by some members of the Congress, such as John Quincy Adams, Abraham Lincoln, Henry David Thoreau under the amendment of slavery key. However, the southern democrats on the other hand supported the war in hope that it might help justify the American expansion under the Manifest destiny. Subsequently, the American Congress issued the declaration of war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. This eventually led to a war that saw the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to end the war in 1848 (Winders, 1997).
The Demise of the Second Party System
The term Second Party System was a term that was used to refer to the 1828 to 1854 political party system existing in the United States. The last president to hold office under the second party system was Franklin Pierce and it carried out the popular electoral vote in both the North and South before Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office (Paul, Boyer, Clifford, Sandra, Joseph, Andrew, 2009). However, after Pierce was in office for only four years, the Whigs party dissolved and was replaced by the American Republican party.
This second party system had worked as a pro-antislavery advocate and kept the government occupied with other issues in order to take their focus away from it. However, by the 1850s the debate over slavery took another turn after it become top of the governments agenda. The divisions within the Whigs made them more vulnerable to the issue and the signing of the Douglas proposal to organize the greater Nebraska territory by late 1854 with no restrictions on slavery led to the demise of their party. This bill was originally intended by Douglas to show the American interest to facilitate national expansion to the west but it gave base to the expansion of slavery (Paul et al., 2009).
This led to the nullification of the Missouri compromise and divided the territory into northern Nebraska and southern parts Kansas. The southern part Kansas then was opened to slavery and led to uproars through out the country by the free-soil activists. Slavery was given power and the industrialists at the time took advantage of the situation to acquire as much slaves for their industries (Altschuler, Glenn, Stuart, 1997). This also gave way to the expansion into the new territories a fact that led to the displacement of the native occupants. Natives were forced to migrate to the west in the call of national expansion while some of them were taken as slaves by the slave breeders and slave traders.

The progression and development of the African American movement would not have been successful if not for the inputs and attempts of individuals to continuously recognize their significance and relevance in American society. Their undying efforts to equalize and find opportunities for imparting change becomes the catalyst in upholding the change necessary and the consensus towards finding the necessary elements shaping their role in society. Given these opportunity, there are certain themes in the clamor for equalization and alternatives that remains to be influential in shaping the ways to impart the notions for development.
    One important theme can be considered relevant to the plight of African Americans involve the speech made by Booker T. Washington. In his address, he exemplified the relevance and significance of African Americans in American society. Despite the initial attempts by the Whites to subjugate their roles to mainly agriculture and relatively have inferior roles in society, the essence and values that they portray showcase the positive elements of culture. These comprise of (1) patience, (2) perseverance, and (3) law-abiding.
    At the same time, the perspective of Washington seeks to portray an African American who is dynamic and responsive to the changes. In the speech, it is said that if anywhere there are efforts tending to curtail the fullest growth of the Negro, let these efforts be turned into stimulating, encouraging and making him the most useful and intelligent citizen. This positive view towards seeking change remains essential in finding the right mindset in clamoring for equality. At the same time, it fosters the same amount of respect on how African Americans have contributed to the development and growth of the country.
     Another theme that can be included and holds a beneficial ground resounds on the arguments presented by Henry McNeal Turner. His point of view corresponds to the justification of the growth and development of African Americans. Despite the common conceptions about their inferiority compared to whites, the perspective highlighted by Turner justifies their capacity to become involved in deeper state and societal affairs. They are in very essence part of the American race. These have been justified by their participation and relentless service provided to the country. It can be seen here that there is the desire for equality and realization towards respecting ones worth. What the black man needs is a country and surroundings in harmony with his color and with respect for his manhood.
    This theme then becomes the essential building blocks of nationalism and identity. It is in here that the perspective of being American despite the differences in color and social status becomes recognized. These then brings about the condition towards shaping the value and importance of freedom. African Americans need the corresponding value of respect and determination to achieve this. Likewise, it is an essential component that shapes altogether their plight to uplift the common misconceptions and standards given. If the Negro is to be a man, full and complete, he must take part in everything that belongs to manhood.
    The last aspect that can be included within the theme of the African American Movement would be the desire to sustain and influence continuity of the struggle towards equality. Under W.E.B. Dubois statement, it is the relevance of education that provides such impetus in gaining advantage and recognition towards change. The realization towards development comes from learning the past mistakes and trying to induce new ways for African Americans to diversify their capabilities and strengths accordingly. Education and work are the levers to uplift people. These two components become the driving force in realizing that the past inadequacies can be attainable.
    Moreover, this remains also to be an influential dimension shaping recognition among African Americans. Since many clamor for equality and ending discrimination, there needs to be justification for such. Each action must coincide with the desire to improve and develop. The common perspectives of hard work and education should remain the motivation shaping actions by people. At the same time, continuity and transcendence need to be made so as to foster growth. It can be seen that the Talented Tenth of the Negro race must be made leaders of thought and missionaries of culture among their people. The lack of these changes would then limit and disengage the value that African American patriots have long strived for. 
    On the other hand, the argument and theme presented by Frances E. W. Harper showcases the notion of using religion as a basis for fighting towards equality. Reflecting on this themeidea, the common perspective becomes relatively construed with the true nature of what African Americans are fighting for. Rather than seeking to find possible solutions and alternatives to the problems on hand, there is then the common perspective that religion can become a solution to the problem. Such conceptualization only discourages possible solutions and alienates the capacity towards facilitating avenues towards recognition and equality.
    Though this may prove to be an important component in shaping perspectives among African Americans in gaining strength and determination towards their objectives, common ideals must be made in order to generate and explore possible dimensions in extracting new directives leading to development. Seeing this, common ideals must be separated within the functions of religion and the clamor for equality and recognition.

The Republic of Rome had a decline very gradually starting from the March of Sulla upon Rome in 88.  The soldiers of the Roman legions were from the middle class landowners in Rome and the numbers of small-scale landowners were declining very fast, due to various reasons. It was not easy for these farmers to revert once they were soldiers. As a result they depended on their commanders for their future, and the commander received their loyalty as long as they showed these veterans a way for livelihood. At a time when attackers and defenders wrote the history of the world, and all the roads led to Rome, commanders who could effectively manage such comrades-in-arms held the future in their arms.  Let us watch the few leaders who achieved this.

Sulla and his soldiers  Sulla fought King Mithridates of Asia Minor in Greece.  While he was defending Rome, the Senate under Marius was busy declaring him an outlaw. Even though the army of Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, had an army thrice the size of Sullas, the Roman defeated them completely, with the help of his soldiers. After his march on Rome and the defeat of Marius, Sulla rewarded his fellow soldiers by settling them in the suburbs of Rome.  Many of the villagers in the suburbs of Rome were ousted and replaced by the veterans in the army. But he lost his public support with the stoppage of subsidies for grain, thereby disrupting the food supply to more than 300, 00 inhabitants in the city of Rome. His own experience behind him, he decided that he would not favor soldiers who would move in on him and Rome, under any commander who felt so.  So he limited the term of Commander to a short period.  Such was the threat of these armies, which could caution even an iron handed, cold-blooded ruler like Sulla.

Pompey and his rise to power The reforms of Sulla had caused an uprising immediately after his death.  Pompey defeated the Etrurian people, under the leadership of Lepidus. Pompey, after Lepidus death did not agree to disband his army.  He went to Spain, to help Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius against Quintus Sertorius.  The war would have turned in the favor of Sertorius had it not been for the reinforcements that reached Pompey and Pius army from Italy, under the directions of the Senate.  Sertorius was defeated and eliminated.  Pompey and his faithful legions defeated the army that held Spain in rebellion, against the Senate in Rome. Sertorius was defeated because of the disloyalty of his legions especially that of Peperna.   The slave rebellion under Spartacus too gives proof of the loyalty of legions, and the discontent of the masses.

Pompey used this army to buy himself a consulship in 70 along with Crassus.  Even though he was only thirty-five, the Senate gave consulship to Pompey when they saw that they could not face the army that was commanded by Pompey. We find that after he returns from his campaign against King Mithridates, he rewarded his soldiers with 6,000 sesterces when the annual basic pay of a soldier was just 450 sesterces.  He rewarded his officers more handsomely.  He understood their importance and relevance for his position in Rome 1.
1. Mary, Boatwright,  Daniel, Gargola Richard, Talbert The Romans From village to empire. New York Oxford university press. P 220-221.

Under Caesar  The immortal words Veni Vidi Vici, could be claimed to have been made by Caesar due to his faithful legions. Caesar himself paid the money, though not wholly, to raise the legions which amounted to about 50,000 men.  This army aided him in breaking the advance of the Helvetians against the Roman army in Gaul and the German attack on Gaul itself.  The same army with its iron discipline was used to conquer Gaul completely and subjugate it under Roman rule.  While in Rome, he had actually made the Senate swear an oath to respect the land distribution, which had a direct impact on the legions, which were the most affected. After the wars abroad, he took steps to settle his veterans.  Unlike Sulla, he did not take away much land by force and only 15,000 men were settled in Rome.  Others were given lands overseas, or confiscated lands that were taken from enemies who had joined in the fights against Caesar.  Two such colonies that became prominent were Carthage and Corinth.  Some of his fellow men in the army found their place in the Senate.  There were men who were as low in rank as Centurion, in the house of Senators.   Thus, Caesar had rewarded an army which had made him almost King over a dead Republic.

Second Triumvirate  When the Senate was confronted with the choice of granting the position of Consul to Octavian,  they declined the plea.  However, the senate soon forgot this when Octavian marched onto to Rome with five legions loyal to him.  Soon the duo of Antony and Octavian was to have twenty legions each to pursue and punish the Assassins of Caesar.  This huge army was impossible to feed and even the second set of proscriptions along the model of Sulla was not sufficient.  Then we find the second triumvirate committing the outrage of handing over 18 richest Italian cities with their lands to the armies. They went to this extent because they knew the importance of keeping the soldiers content.  With these legions, they defeated Cassius and Brutus at the battle of Phillippi. 

Nevertheless, When Octavian was faced with the question of the regime to rule Rome, It has to be noted that Octavian was reluctant to present an army based monarchy in Rome, as he knew how fickle the soldiers could be.

A diet is the total nutrient value that is found in the food that one consumes. It is usual that the different regions of the world or even the different people in the world consume food with different nutritive values. The different parts of the world have people with different preferences when it comes to the kind of food that they take. This varies because of diverse reasons. It might be due to culture, religion and even the availability of food. The American population is made up of people from the different regions of the world apart from the natives. This presents a wide range of choice of diets as each and every one goes with the diet that they like.
In the United States of America, the different ethnic groups have influenced the dietary intake of America. For instance, in the early twentieth century, the continents experienced a shift in dietary preferences. For instance, the widely African diets that included foods that are rich in starch like cassava and yam were introduced into the American feeding culture. The other influences that came from the other continents would include those that are rich in proteins from the Southern American region. An example would be pork from pigs. The dietary influences, just like now, were also heavily leaning on the lifestyles of the people and hence you would find that those who could afford heavy spending on food would actually get food that would form what was considered to be balanced diet then. These were meals that contained the most basic nutrients in sufficient quantities in the daily food intake. Together, with the influence from most of the continents, America stopped leaning heavily on animal proteins, mainly from cattle. This gave way to eating culture that would include intake of alcohol on much more restrained intervals. Before that, the diet had included alcohol in the form of whisky.
The coming of slaves to America in the eighteenth and nineteenth century also brought in a mixture of food cultures that included food mainly found in the western part of Africa. In America, they were referred to as the soul food. Up to date, it is a term that is used to refer to food that is mainly a dietary preference of the African American population. The soul food is a diet that is rich in proteins and carbohydrates. An example is the quantity of poultry products and whole meal corn and rice that is common in the diet.
During the post World War II period, the American diet experienced a huge change in the foods that were recommended as there has been an effect of the unrestricted diet that having been there before. Due to the lifestyles that had changed after a high rate of development, most people that were working in the towns began to experience a more sedentary kind of lifestyle. With it came diseases that affected the different body systems. There was need to introduce diets that would be consistent with the kind of lifestyles that the people were used to. For instance, more strict diets were to be observed by the people who lead sedentary lives. This includes food that is low in fats, especially animal ones that contain saturated fats. Some other food that was to be taken in small were those products that contain a lot of carbohydrates and gluten e.g. processed food like refined wheat, corn floor and rice.
    Currently, we find more and more people observing strict diets that might even totally kick out the consumption of animal products. This is referred to as the vegan culture. Most of those who observe this kind of diet do it mostly due to ethical reasons as opposed to health measures. In as much as there are those who might eat some kind of animal product while avoiding some particular others these are strictly not vegans. They are vegetarians. Vegetarian diet might include food that does not consist of meat as an animal product and other products such as eggs.
    The current diet in America also tends to lay less emphasis on highly refined food such as processed grains like wheat floor, rice and corn floor. Among the processed foods is also a list of products that are canned like fish, meat and beans. These are considered to digest quickly in ones system thereby leading to the body needing more food which in turn introduces us to a feeding culture that is not healthy. Fast food is also a form of current diet that is not very healthy and that is common in the current culture. Fast food has been known to contain an unregulated amount of fats that the body does not necessarily need. Unfortunately enough, much of the population that can not afford the healthy diet are exposed to the danger posed by frequent consumption of fast food.

Few would disagree with the statement that formal western philosophy has its origins in the Archaic Age of Greece. The name of Thales founder of Philosophic materialism Pythagoras founder of philosophic idealism and Heraclitus (545-485 B.C.) first dialectical thinker, immediately come to mind when one attempts an explanation of the men who originated this mode of thought. Equally important would be the work of Hellenic age thinkers (479-323 B.C.) like the Pre-Socratics the Sophists Socrates (470-399 B.C.), Plato (427-437) and Aristotle (384 -322 B.C.). Of all the thinkers associated with this era, Aristotle is reputed to have had the most comprehensive mind  a polymath (Hollister, McGee and Stokes 95). Besides Plato, 
Aristotle, more than any other thinker, determined the orientation and the content of Western intellectual history. He was the author of a philosophical and scientific system that through the centuries became the support and vehicle for both medieval Christian and Islamic scholastic thought until the end of the 17th century, Western culture was Aristotelian. And, even after the intellectual revolutions of centuries to follow, Aristotelian concepts and ideas remained embedded in Western thinking (Sowerby 115).

A short Biography
But who was Aristotle This will be the subject of this essay. Towards this end, the writer will attempt a synopsis of Aristotles biography, a review of the times in which he lived and his achievements and historical significance.

Unfortunately, any attempted reconstruction of Aristotles biography will have to rely on virtually hagiographies (like that of Hermippus of Smyrna), legends, ancient tittle-tattle and bilious works of jaundiced critics as the major sources, for these reasons, Aristotles biographers have to grope about, in a highly subjective fashion, for anything that might fill the gaps in his life. However, experts seem to agree on the particulars of the sketch written below.

    Aristotle was born in 384 at Stagira on the Chalcidic peninsula of northern Greece (Blakesley 12-13). His father, Nicomachus, belonged to the guild of the asclepiads (physician) and his mother, a native of Chalcis in Euboea, was named Phaestis. Admittedly, knowledge of Aristotles early years is virtually absent. In fact the only thing that most experts seem to agree on is that, given his fathers profession, it is highly likely that he would have accompanied his father in his travels. However, it is known that his father migrated from Chalcidice to Macedonia where he was appointed the personal physician of Amyntas III, King of Macedonia (Sowerby 137). There is no record to indicate whether Aristotle accompanied his father to Pella, the capital of Macedonia (138). However, given Aristotles friendship with Amyntass son, Philip, it is reasonable to conclude that their friendship was cultivated in Pella during his fathers tenure as the court physician. 

    When Aristotle was about 10 years, his father died, and since his mother also seems to have died young, Aristotle was brought up by his uncle, Proxenus of Atarneus (Hoffe 4). Under Proxenus, Aristotle learned Greek, rhetoric and poetry. At the age of 17 years (367 B.C.) he enrolled at Platos Academy in Athens. When Aristotle arrived at the academy, Plato was away on his first visit to Syracuse and the institution was being run by Eudoxus of Cnidos. Notable personalities who were teaching at the institution during this time included Speusippus, Platos nephew and Xenocrates of Chalcedon. After a brief stint as a student, Aristotle became a teacher at the academy where he was to remain until Platos death in 367 B.C. (4). According to Diogenes Laertius who wrote in the second century A.D., Aristotle taught rhetoric and dialectic (2). This claim, according to most experts, is not far fetched, given the fact that Aristotle wrote on rhetoric (issued a critique of Isocrates rhetoric titled Gryllus) during this time.

    After 20 years, Aristotle left the academy. The circumstances surrounding his exit have been traced to two developments. First, it has been argued that Aristotle left Athens due to frustrated philosophical ambition. That being one of Platos star student, he expected the dying philosopher to bequeath him the leadership of the academy however, at his death in 347 B.C., Plato transferred the leadership of the academy to his nephew Speusippus a bitter disappointment to Aristotle who was generally opposed to Speusippus views (Green 53-54). Further, the death of Amyntas III in 369 B.C. precipitated a series of events which were to impact directly on Aristotles life (54). For a time, Amyntas III sons, Alexander II and Perdiccas III, reigned in a period characterized by bloody factional feuds. However, in 359 B.C., Aristotle boyhood friend Phillip sized the Macedonian throne, and after pacifying the kingdom, went on a conquering spree annexing Olynthus, Chalcidice and Stagira (Aristotles town of birth). A worried Athens, forewarned by the great orator, Demosthenes, became increasingly uncomfortable with Macedonia, and as some have suggested with individuals, such as Aristotle with known connection to the Philip  recently, Chroust argued that Aristotle left Athens because of anti-Macedonian feeling and rather than through frustrated academic ambitions (Chroust 4).

    From Athens, Aristotle migrated to Assos, together with Xenocrates of Chalcedon. In Assos, they took up residence at the court of Hermeias, ruler of Atarneus. In due course, Aristotle married Pythias, Hermeias niece and had a daughter called Pythias with her - unkind whispers even had it that he had a homosexual relationship with Hermeias himself during his stay at the court (53). However, after ten years, the wife died. Apart from his philosophical activities, he also acted as a political confidant to his patron and a link man between Hermeias and Philip (Sowerby 138). In 3454 B.C. he moved to Mytilene, probably at the invitation of Theophrastus. According Green, he stayed on the island for a couple of years researching, teaching and spying on the Persians at the Troad (54). In 345 B.C. the Philosopher-Eunuch, Hermeias, was captured and executed by the by Mentor, Artaxerxes Greek henchman.

Fearing for his life, Aristotle moved, stopping at Lesbos for about one year, before reaching Macedonian in 343 B.C. where he was to remain for seven years. Tradition reports that during this time, he resided, for some time, at Mieza, a village in the foothills of the Bermius range where he tutored Phillips thirteen year old son, Alexander, the future world conqueror. In 340 B.C. he moved back to his fathers hometown, Stagira, along with his scientists and philosophers (Green 53). At Stagira, he had a relationship with Herpyllis, with whom he had a son, Nicomachus.

Meanwhile, Phillip was assassinated in a palace intrigue in 336 B.C. and Alexander assumed the reigns. In 335 B.C., at the encouragement of Alexander, Aristotle moved to Athens where he founded his own school to rival the Academy, in the Lyceum, a gymnasium in the temple of Apollo Lyceus, located in a groove outside Athens (Sowerby 138). Contrary to the Academy which had a narrow interest, Aristotles Lyceum had a broader range of subjects. According to tradition, which arose several centuries after his death   
 Aristotle in these same years lectured - not once, but two or three times, in almost every subject - on logic, physics, astronomy, meteorology, zoology, metaphysics, theology, psychology, politics, economics, ethics, rhetoric, poetics and that he wrote down these lectures, expanding them and amending them several times, until they reached the stage in which we read them (Grayeff 112).

With the death of Alexander the great in 323 B.C. and the subsequent revolt against Macedonian subordinates in Athens, Aristotle, fearing political persecution, fled to his mothers hometown of Chalcis  arguing that he wished to spare Athens from committing a second sin against philosophy (Hollister, McGee, Stokes 94). He died the following year (322 B.C.) from a stomach complaint.

    As to his personality, pretty little is known, but Green writes his personal appearance was foppish, not to say eccentric. He was balding, spindle-shanked, and had small eyes..he wore dandified clothes, cut and curled his hair in affected manner and numerous rings spangled in his fingers (Barnes b 3). Further, according to Barnes writes He was a good speaker, lucid in his lectures, persuasive in conversation and he had a mordant wit. His enemies, who were numerous, made him out to be arrogant and overbearing (Barnes 4).
Aristotle Times
Technically, Aristotles life spanned the twilight years of the Hellenic age (479 -323 B.C.) and the dawn of the Hellenistic age (323-31 B.C.). The Hellenic age has been divided by historians in four phases The Delian league wars in Greece and in Persia and the ensuing thirty years peace the Peloponnesian War and Spartan and Theban hegemony and the triumph of Macedonia (Mathews and Platt 58) - However, Aristotles lifetime, spanned the last tow phases.

Despite a century of destructive civil wars in Greece, the Hellenic age marked the high point of classical civilization. Political systems, philosophical concepts and artistic concepts evolved at a breakneck pace. Aristocracies fell, autocracies flourished and democracies (hitherto unknown) emerged in an atmosphere characterized by acute political awareness and social change (84). At the same time, the self assurance of Greeks, who was generally confident of their cultural superiority, never wavered. At its zenith, Periclean Athens and other poleis would produce some of the finest work of architecture, sculpture and drama.    
Throughout this age, Athens was the leading cultural centre of the Greek world. Atop its acropolis gleamed brilliantly designed temples (Parthenon among others), at the Agora, philosophers debated the most pressing questions on the days in an atmosphere of relative freedom the sophists openly doubted the existence of the Olympian deities, questioned philosophical inquiry and the notion of absolute truth Socrates responded to there claims in his own corrosive fashion, so would Plato and Aristotle. In the words of Hollister et al., the modern academic counterpart of fourth-century Athens would be a huge state university campus (95). Elsewhere, citizens congregated outdoors to discharge their civic and political responsibilities. Here they debated and passed laws or did jury duties. In their leisure time, they cheered the athletes in the open-air gymnasium. During the drama festivals the whole city would turn out to sample the latest tragedy or comedy (96). And when the tocsin sounded, young men were paraded off to some bloody war, perhaps with a neighboring polis.

As the 4th century progressed, a slow and progressive decay of everything classic gripped Athens. The curtailment of the freedom of academic inquiry was hallmarked by the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C., gifted amateurism declined, administrative procedures became more intricate, citizen soldiers gave way to mercenaries, rampant individualism increased and patriotism waned. In Kittos words, progress broke the Polis (quoted by Hollander McGee and Stokes 96). In the end, Athens would be defeated in the Peloponnesian war (431-404 B.C.).   

However, if the sort lived Athenian empire hallmarked the golden age of Classic civilization, the defeat of Athens heralded a gradual decline of classicism. The succeeding Spartan and Theban hegemony - in an age characterized by political intrigue and incessant inter-polis feuds - fell to a semi-barbarian, monarchical state of Macedonian. Phillip, the Macedonian king, then brought the Greek states under his rule - however under Philip, these poleis still enjoyed some relative autonomy (Pomeroy 379).
 Like I stated earlier, Philip was succeeded by his 19 year old son Alexander, who, immediately, went on a world conquering expedition. His Greco-Macedonian army marched into Asia Minor, Egypt and Mesopotamia, thereby bringing the Persian Empire to an end, and then he looted his way through Asia to the Indus in India. At his abrupt death in 322 B.C. his empire fragmented into three successor kingdoms - Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Asia, and Antigonid Macedonia.
In short, Aristotles times were characterized by incessant wars, an intellectual revolution, the end of the Hellenic age and the beginning of the Hellenistic age.

Aristotles Achievements
While the argument among scholars as to whether Aristotle wrote any of the treatises assigned to him continues, his intellectual contribution to western thought is not in doubt. Interestingly, Aristotles works were first published in 60 B.C. by Andronicus of Rhodes, the last head of the Lyceum (Cornford 54). Although his extant works may represents only a fragment of his entire works  if Diogenes claims is anything to go by, they include his investigation on a wide range of subjects including logic, metaphysic, ethics, physics, biology, psychology, politics, and rhetoric (Sowerby 137).

    His biological studies, which were based on careful observations and classification into genus and species, were groundbreaking (Hollister, McGee and Stokes 94). In fact, he was the first philosopher to conduct a systematic study of biota, through the empirical method. His studies in metaphysic and logic were similarly revolutionary. In Nicomachean Ethics, he formulated a relatively new ethical principle  the idea of the golden mean. Arguing that anger and love, eating and drinking are neither good not evil they should neither be suppressed nor carried to excess and that virtue is the avoidance of extremes (95). Further, Aristotles rhetoric has had a profound influence on the development of the art of rhetoric in the west. Not only authors writing in the peripatetic tradition, but also the famous Roman teachers of rhetoric, such as Cicero and Quintilian, frequently used elements stemming from the Aristotelian doctrine (Sowerby 138). In addition, his literary criticism is still lauded for its penetrating analysis of tragedy. For a long time in western history, his notions of how drama should be structured stood as virtual law (Hollister 95).

    For 2000 years, Aristotelianism defined western physics. Although his physics had its obvious weaknesses because he defined things in terms of their qualitative differences rather than quantitative differences, it constituted a radical break from the past approaches. In fact, his system building attempt (explanation of how the world works) was a monumental intellectual achievement. The synthesis between Aristotle and the second century philosopher, Ptolemy, ideas would constitute what pundits call the Old Paradigm the so-called Aristotelian  Ptolemaic synthesis dominated western science until the Copernican revolution (Mathews and Platt 70). Further, Aristotles metaphysics and physics profoundly influenced western theological thinking. Besides Christians, Muslims and Jews ranked his books just below their scriptures in the medieval ages. Today, Roman Catholic Church theology is woven warp and woof across Aristotles philosophy and his logic and ethics continues to be taught in college philosophy courses.

Seminoles White Potato Clan Legend
In the late 1840s Ireland experienced famine because potato production dropped due to mold infections (Grubb and Guilford, 1912). It is a crop recommended for Chineses consumption to help alleviate drought since it requires less water supply than rice and corn (Coonan, 2007). Potatoes serve as one of the most common root crops in the United States (Pack et al, 2003). Potatoes are important in early civilizations like the Incans (Chapman, 2000). Potatoes were their staple crop and managed to preserve it for up to ten years through dehydrating and mashing.
Among the several varieties of potatoes, the white-skinned potato was the one grown commercially all throughout Florida (Pack et al.,2003). The texture also differs due to its relative smoothness in comparison to other varieties. Its tubers have shallower eyes. The Seminole and Miccosukee tribes in South Florida are also involved in the cultivation of potatoes in the area. In fact, one of the Seminole tribes is known as the white-potato clan. This clan has its share of legend transmitted through oral folk tales.
The clan system of the Seminole is matrilineal (Weismann, 1999). This means that the clans of the children are based on the clan of their mothers. According to legends, the white-potato clan was formed when male Seminole natives married white people (Mikasuki). The union produced clan-less children. If a child does not belong to any clan, they will not be able to enjoy the privileges enjoyed by those with clans. In addition, there is a tradition that people from the same clan cannot inter-marry.
Thus, according to the legend, the mothers of the clan-less children talked to the village elders. The elders instructed them to pray to the Creator. They went to the place for prayers and asked for the creators guidance. For several days, the mothers prayed until finally the creator spoke to them. The creator told them to look for a plant from the grounds, which would give them instructions to solve their problem and the clan name for their children. The creator said that the plant was located in the place with soft ground and black waters. (Mikasuki) The legend said that the search continued for days until the mothers were about to give up. The mothers prayed for the creators guidance, and they finally heard the plants voice. The plant told the mothers that it may be living underground but the creator had vested him with the ability to see things in all directions at once. The plant told them that they need to take out its eyes and plant it on small mounds. The plant said that upon doing this, the people would have an ample supply of food. The legend said that the clan-less children became the White Potato Clan and that the white potato remained an important part of the Seminoles diet.
It could be deduced from the above discussion that plants are seen as the messenger of the creator and the manifestation of his grace, ability to help and power. Humans are portrayed as beings that depend on plants even on minute matters such as a clan-name. The importance of white potato in the current environment and society, especially in the Native Americans diet sustained the legends existence.

This paper mainly deals with various aspects of women lives in Egypt and Aztec civilizations. Aspects of gender balance, social conditions, authority that women commanded have been dealt with in detail. Scant mention has been given on the role and place of women in Greek civilization just to elaborate the specific details.
An attempt has also been made to draw parallels between these two civilizations. It comes out clearly that though women occupied different stratums in these two civilizations they were able to assert their authority and place in the society at least economically. However, they were alienated from mainstream leadership positions and only ascended by accident as the case is in Egypt. However, they played limited leadership roles as can be seen in Aztecs market places. 
Lastly, it comes out clearly that these two civilizations some up the treatment and roles of women in antiquity. This is because they cover both extremes. In Egypt, women were respected, and indeed protected by the law. In Aztec, they were looked down upon, and counted as property and even given out as sacrifices
Introduction
For a very long time, even in the early centuries, the position of women in most societies has been second to that of men. In most communities, a patriarchal relationship of authority that was strictly observed served to compromise the position of the woman in the community. Even today, this is true for most indigenous communities, which has perhaps failed to master the courage to embrace gender equity. Or should we say they have failed to break out of their comforts zones, characterized by male dominance. The tribal clan structure of most communities also played a role in not only complicating but pushing the womans role to the periphery of societal issues. Although in the early ages there were some communities whereby women came out strongly in leadership and position of authority, and were more visible, such were an exception. The common denominator is the fact that the womans role and position in the society since the early ages has restricted the development and meaningful societal participation of the women.
From todays standpoint of the womans place, it is in order to try and look at how women were regarded, and indeed treated in the early civilizations.According to Wilfong (1997), in some early historical civilizations women were not viewed as being very important to society. In those civilizations the men controlled the women at all times and the women would often have very little or no freedom to even go out of the house unaccompanied or have a say in their society(Robbins, 1993).Most early  civilizations such as Greece which were patriarchal followed this course. On the other hand, other civilizations such as Egypt were very open and granted their women more freedoms.
Egyptian Women
Early ages in Egypt have been broken down into the Old, Middle and New World to depict the trend in civilization.Occupations
Unlike other civilizations such as Greece, women were allowed to go out in public. This appears to be the notion we get even among the Aztec society. In the public, some women would trade freely. But, Wilfong (1997) observes that Egyptian women mostly worked in the fields at home and in the workshops owned by the family. Though they had this immense freedom, compared to other civilizations, their occupations were limited. Most women simply stayed at home and took care of the house and the family. A few of the women in high status would be leaders. Others however would simply be housekeepers, servants, field hands, and skilled workers in workshops.
Gender Equity
According to Wilfong (1997) legal distinctions in Egypt were apparently based much more upon differences in the social classes, rather than differences in gender. Accordingly, rights and privileges were not uniform from one class to another, but within the given classes, it seems that equal economic and legal rights were, for the most part, accorded to both men and women (Robbins, 1993). Infact, Wilfong (1997) points out that the Egyptian womans rights extended to all the legally defined areas of society. Hence women could manage and dispose of private property such as land, portable goods, servants, slaves, livestock as well as financial instruments like endowments and annuities(Robbins,1993).It is therefore significant that a woman could do a wide range of things without the need of a male representative. In Aztec, this could not have happened given that some institutions like Snake Woman were entirely composed of men.
According to Capel and Glenn (2002) women were regarded within in the Ancient Egyptian society for their roles as child bearer and keeper of the household. Indeed fertility was highly regarded and an infertile woman could be divorced summarily. This is similar to how women were regarded in Aztec culture. Though there was relatively  some semblance of gender balance, when it came to administrative roles, women appear to take a back seat, perhaps because the succession rule gave more prominence to the males. Consequently, observes that very few women achieved status and power through these elite roles and only six women are documented to have achieved the position of pharaoh.
Music
Music permeated all aspects of Ancient Egyptians lives. It featured prominently as an aspect of mourning in funerary scenes, used for entertainment in the home and the fields. In all these settings, women were the main participants.
According to Capel and Glenn (2002) it is within the tradition of music, both sacred and secular, that women of Ancient Egypt were accorded titles of status that remained unparalleled for their gender elsewhere in the public sphere. Music primarily functioned within the religious sphere in Ancient Egypt even secular music often had its roots in the religious tradition of the society.
Orchestras composed entirely of women and bands of female musicians that were attached to elite estates and the palace of Akhenaton were featured prominently on monuments throughout Tell el Amarna (Robbins, 1993). The status of women as musicians was accorded more and more prestige as the eras of Ancient Egyptian civilization progressed.  According to Wilfong (1997) one of the most widespread roles for female musicians was that of chantress.This role kind of tended to link their musical activities to the religious temples service where some served as priestesses.
Religious Practices
In the Old and Middle Kingdoms Robbins (1993) observes that many elite women bore the title priestess in the temple of Hathor or Neith. There were also a few women who were wab priestesses, but no woman held higher rank than that. There were a few male priests in these temples also. The roles played by these priests and priestesses are not clear, but Robbins (1993) observes that by the New Kingdom the title Priestess had disappeared completely. On the other hand Wilfong (1997) points that a woman bearing the title of shemayet in the New Kingdom was a musician with the duties of  singing hymns and playing sistrum in the temple of a particular god or goddess.
Womens Property Rights
According to Capel and Glenn (2002)) there were several ways in which an Egyptian woman could acquire possessions and real property. Most frequently, she received it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband. Again, an Egyptian woman could acquire property by purchasing it out of proceeds from her or borrowed assets.
Under Egyptian property law, a woman had claim to one-third of all the community property in her marriage (Capel and Glenn, 2002).This was normally the property which accrued to her husband and her only after they were married. When a woman brought her own private property like dowry to a marriage, this remained hers, despite the fact that the husband gained free use if such property. What come out clearly is that in both the Aztec and Early Egypt, women could inherit property.
Marriage
There was no age limit as to when people could be married, but generally a girl did not get married until she had begun to menstruate at about the age of 14. Unlike in the Aztec traditions where marriage required an elaborate banqueting, in Egypt no religious or legal ceremony was performed (Robbins, 1993). There were no special bridal clothes, no exchange of rings, no change of names to indicate marriage, and no word meaning wedding.
Surprisingly, even after a wife was married, she kept her independence, and still controlled her own assets. Even though the husband controlled any joint property obtained during the marriage it was acknowledged that a share of this belonged to the wife and when the marriage ended, she could collect he share. Divorce was a private matter, and for the most part, the government did not interfere. According to Wilfong (1997) almost any excuse could be used to end a marriage, and an alliance could be terminated at will. Examining the Aztec culture, marriage could only end in the event that the husband mistreated his wife. In such a case, the wifes relatives collected her from her patriarchal home.

AZTEC WOMAN
Gender Balance
The Aztec society was a patriarchy, a male dominated society, ruled by kings and noble loads. As a result, women in this society were considered subordinate of men, possibly even property. As a result, women had little chance to take part in government and religious activities.Consequent to this, all government and religious functions were closed off to women. Hassig (1992) observes that one of the most important religious offices, the Snake Woman, was always filled by men. Women contribution in such gatherings was thus not valued.
Aztec womans life  was decided the very moment she was borne, and was not expected to either challenge or compete with the men.Hassig (1992),succinctly captures this when he says that the moment a female child was borne, the  midwife said to a female baby, You must live in the house like the heart in the body You must not leave the house...You must be like the ashes and the hearth. Hence the girl child was promised the house and family very early in life. In fact, according to (Hassig, 1992) women were most especially required to behave with chastity and high moral standards. This remotely points to the fact that women, in this society were mostly regarded as people whose main function was child bearing and above all, to be seen and not heard.
Spirituality
According to Olgun (2002), girls could become priestesses if their mother desired. In such a case the mother of the infant, twenty to forty day old baby to the temple to establish an agreement with the priest (Hassig, 1992). At the temple, the girl then learned writing and interpretation of the calendar, pictographs, and prophecy. Besides, the girls learnt to write poetry and the art of oratory.
A priestess performed many roles in the community. In some celebrations, the priestess were the principle deity in the religious celebrations (Hassig ,1992) .For example, during the fourteenth month women took their children to the temple, where the old priestesses would take the children in their arms and dance with them .Other duties included sweeping the holy places and lighting the fires in the temple. These priestesses, though vowed to the church, this was not forever, and they could leave to go and get married. At times, even those who grew at home could dedicate some of their time to the temple, in the hope that the gods will bless them with a happy marriage.
Education
Hassig (1992) observes that at the age of fifteen, girls entered the public school system. This system was different from other systems of the time in that all children, male or female, attended school. This shows some level of equality of genders. This equality could also be seen when later women could help men with various roles, especially as regards trade. In Europe only the upper class was able to attend school (Hassig, 1992).There the young girls learned to make feathered cloaks and to weave. They also learnt the history and rites of being a woman. When the girl was of the marriageable age, they young girls left school, to go and start their own families.

Daily Life
In daily life, there was a clear division of roles between men and women. While men worked in the fields and fought in wars or took the job of his father and became tradesmen, women stayed at home and put their efforts into domestic duties like childbearing, weaving, and cooking. Women were educated for these activities from young ages. However, it is important to point out that women roles were not restricted to the house. They also played a role in the workforce. They worked as merchants, traders, scribes, courtesans, healers and midwifes.
Taxes
All women were required to pay tribute in the form of cloth and woven goods to the imperial Aztec state. With time, the Aztec state increased the demands of female tribute, which caused women on both the local and national level to pay more taxes through the production of woven goods. This called for them to put in more time and resources for fear of the consequences of failure. In some instances, men could also help with the weaving.
Economy
Apart from domestic roles, women in the Aztec empire could be merchants, and trades people in the marketplace. Olgun (2002), observed that Aztec women participated in long distance trade. Such women were referred as pochtea and they could acquire wealth, riches, and learn foreign languages and cultures. They could sell what they made in the marketplace and gain some wealth for their families, besides making a name for themselves. Some of the things they dealt in included raw and prepared food, cloth, and other items in the market.  According to , Olgun (2002),  women in the Aztec society even held places as official arbiters to resolve disputes that arose in the marketplace.
Women in Aztec enjoyed some form of autonomy from their male counterparts .Most conspicuously to this autonomy is the fact that both men and women were entitled to own and inherited property as well as enjoy social status based on kinship and lineages (Hassig ,1992). Consequently, women could also acquire wealth through various social and economic activities .However, Hassig (1992) observes that this was based on their genetic affiliations to culturally important ancestors.
Social Status
According to Hassig (1992) women also worked as prostitutes and courtesans, but they do not seem to have been social outcasts as a result. The Aztec courtesans served young noble warriors and danced with them at ritual celebrations.This suggest that they had an elevated status in their own society. According to Hassig (1992)  the Aztec culture did not place the same value on individuals as our modern culture, and in many cases  women (wives and daughters) were offered to visiting guests for sexual pleasure(Olgun ,2002).Besides, Olgun (2002), points out that women were also offered for sacrifice. The worst of the voluntary offerings of women for sacrifice was the ritual of Xipe Totec - where a young girl or woman would be offered by her family to the Aztec priests - raped by the Aztec priests, then skinned alive - after which the priest would wear the womans skin in a ritual of transformation (Olgun, 2002).
Medicine
Aztec women also served as healers or midwives. During the colonial period, Spanish tried to quell this practice, believing it to be a distraction from the one true Christian God. Hassig (1992) observes that documents from the Spanish accounts indicate that the women healers were more highly skilled than European doctors. However, such accounts lacked the depth and appear to gloss over what these women were doing. Consequently, a good deal of the cultural knowledge of these women was lost, given also that that the  Spanish began to repress the religion of the Aztecs and prosecute and persecute women healers as witches(Olgun ,2002).Aztec women may have pioneered in prenatal care, as records indicate they began ministering to pregnant women in their seventh month(Olgun ,2002).