History

The mastery of Stephanie Smallwood lies in the fact that in her book she restrains to present the readers numeric information regarding the study of Middle Passage, which can be read from the chronicles as well. It is interesting to read the journals, letters and stories about the trade to have a close look at the issue of slavery rather than using account books. The narrative of African slaves brought to America, saltwater slaves, presents the brutality hidden under the ignominious cycle of slavery drawn brilliantly by Smallwood. The book focuses on the British slave trade from the Gold Cost during a period ranging from 1675 to 1725 while presenting her exploration of the processes of forced migration. Smallwoods book, says Ira Berlin (author of Many Thousands Gone), is a new starting point for the studies of the Middle Passage. The narrative is different from the other studies of the Atlantic slave trade that Smallwood enters into the minds of the petty slaves in a way that we see the things from their perspective while sympathizing with them. It is really moving to read the account of the origin of African-America in the global market that was violent. It is an account of the way the brutal act of slavery was seen by Europeans and the Africans and also criticizes historical accounts simultaneously.  

Smallwoods repaints the route from Africa to America in a new way from the perspective of the African migrants through a strong argument. She meditates on the processes of commoditization in Atlantic markets as the book is seen by the author herself as a history of economic systems. Her argument is well conveyed in the book as she argues that the Atlantic trade had been different from the 17th century slavery of Africans because it perpetuated the process of slavery and the vicious cycle of injustice by making the human beings commodities through an organized and institutionalized system. Her emphasis on the importance of the process of commoditization in the slave trade is made evident as she spends four chapters just discussing the process. They choose them as they do horses (Smallwood, 2007,158).

The readers are detached from the central argument as they go on to read pages and pages about the process of commoditization. She shows how West African slave factories required the slave traders to collect men before going to Americas sea voyage. While she moves from the process of commoditization to the question of having and building separate identity of the Africans in America. She goes on to explore the identity of Akin speaking community while stating that the  assumption about the formation of community on the basis of shared culture traits is open to challenge as one tends to comprehend identity. In the regime of market the prominent feature of the Africans was their exchangeability and as migrants was isolation (Smallwood, 2007,189). Smallwood presents her view that a herd of people women, men and children can not be called a group or a crowd but only a mutilated assemblage, a novel and problematic social configuration and an antithesis of community  of people who are alienated and dissociated with each other and do not share any common thing except being chained. It was difficult to thinking to return to their own country to face the problem of integration (Smallwood, 2007, 183). She supports her argument while referring to Birth of African American Culture by Sydney Mints and Richard Price. In the final chapter of the book she calls for the need to reverse the process of commoditization by denouncing it in order to assert a social position in the American society. In her book Smallwood does not write pages for the things that had been a focus of studies for many historians rather she gives evidences for her arguments as she gives the true experience of Charles Ball who used to be a slave himself, Consider the scene ex-slave Charles Ball witnessed in South Carolina (Smallwood, 2007, 189), of an African-born man who put a canoe on his sons grave for allowing him to go back to Africa.

Smallwood makes her argument strong by the anecdote of saltwater that implied the obligation for the slaves to perform ritual to meet the needs during slavery on Atlantic system. Smallwood wants the readers to see the damage done by the Atlantic system that turned the human beings into commodity snatching them of their identity and individuality and alienated them from the external world that looked at them as an alien community or a herd of chained slaves. It questions the issue of African identity in the American society. The fact is evident that Smallwood fails to answer the issues raised through her arguments but the enquiry that she made in order to rediscover the issue makes the readers to accept and comprehend her arguments and they tend to sympathize with the slaves. There was a need of more data in the first chapter about the role of the Dutch in the vicious slave trade and it could be better if Smallwood would have traced the history of slavery from 15th to 17th century but the most important point is that the author conveys her message successfully.   She suggests that Diasporas Africa is constellation of discrete ethnic and linguistic groups (Smallwood, 2007, 189) so the question is of the shared culture of the Africans.  

One of the valuable aspects of history seeks to offers us varying perspectives about the realities of individuals and events that transpired in the past. This enables readers not only to synthesize about particular information given to them but also recognize that there are other ways to interpret. Seeing this, it provides concrete grounds for learning as readers become critical in defining and finding options that can shape and induce peoples ability to establish a fair and sound analysis.

Reflecting on the readings provided concerning Alexander the Great, it connotes finding new options to understand the historical figure. In this way, it offers a rather critical and other side of the persona. Contrary to our own individual beliefs about Alexander the Great, this chapter offers something why he is not so great after all. Using historical analysis and comparative analogy, these authors were able to establish a point regarding the real person Alexander is and what shapes his individual actions accordingly (Snyder and West, 2007).

Reacting on this, I do believe that it is crucial for learners to have an open and critical mind to the things that they see. Not everything that is given to them remains to be true. The discipline of history also corresponds to the interpretation and designation made by people over a particular actor or event. It is then crucial to find out and determine alternative aspects that have shaped the development of the event or personas actions. Such aspect then cultivates the need to critically assess every piece of information and detail provided.

At the same time, the process of immersing new dynamics towards expanding knowledge also arises out of this endeavor. Provided that history can be seen in numerous face corresponding to the intention and goal of the individual or group, it is then important for students to dig deeper to gain appreciation about the relevance of these stories to the way people view life, leadership, and function towards the changes happening in todays society and environment.

The reading also illustrates the reality that exaggeration, mistakes, and misinformation can indeed happen in the creation of historical documents. Here, Alexander the Great character may provide to be such based on actual information. Contrary to the ideas taught to us when we were young about this general, there are other features present  that also contributed to his rise and power and continued expansion. However, these negative qualities may have seemed to be overlapped by his contributions and positive values. This sort of bias I believe contributes to wrongfully informing readers the true story of his life.

In the end, it can be argued that these contribution on a rather alternative accounts to the history of Alexander the Great provides better ways for readers not only to synthesize common themes existent within the story but also creates a dynamic way to learn that history offers alternative accounts that looks into the bigger picture of the story  not something derived from one (preferable) side only.

The invasion of Afghanistan started on October 7, 2001 but Canada did not play a major role in the first few months. Canada sent its first troops in Afghanistan in January- February 2002. It played a significant role from 2006 when its troops were redeployed in the Kandahar province. Currently, there are around 2500-2830 Canadian soldiers deployed in Afghanistan. These troops are part of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). This was a force that was formed with an aim of eliminating worldwide terrorism. The war against Afghanistan was initiated by the United States after the September 11 attacks and it was aimed at identifying and eliminating the al-Qaeda terrorist group in Afghanistan and overthrowing the Taliban government which was believed to be a supporter of international terrorism. The main factor behind Canadas participation in the Afghanistan war to ensure national interests was secured and Canadian leadership remained relevant in the world affairs in as far as Afghanistan concerns. On October 7 2001, the defense minister announced that Canada would be sending its troops to join the international security assistance force and help in toppling of the Taliban regime. The Canadian involvement in the war was initially planned to last up to October 2003. Forty Joint Task Force 2 soldiers were eventually deployed in Afghanistan in December 2001. The deployment of the forces was kept a secret and some months later, there was an outcry in Canadian parliament following publication in The Globe and the Mail of Canadian soldiers handing over captured prisoners to the American forces. The outcry was mainly because the parliament had not been informed of these operations. The defense minister Art Eggleton was accused of deploying JTF2 soldiers in Afghanistan without informing the prime minister or the parliament. Even now the Canadian government has refused to accept the deployment of its troops to Afghanistan as a war but instead claims it s a stabilization that is aimed at preventing another terrorist attack like that which occurred on 911. The Canadian forces played a major role in the war. In the operation Anaconda, 3 Canadian snipers broke and re-broke the record set by a US marine in the Vietnam War for a long distance sniper kill. In general, the Canadian forces launched and participated in many operations either on their own or alongside the American forces.

NATOs role in Afghanistan
The main role that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) plays in Afghanistan is to help the government. Through the International Security Assistance Force which is mandated by the United Nations, NATO assists the government of Afghanistan in exercising its authority and extending its influence throughout the country. In doing this, it paves the way for effective and efficient governance and also helps in creating a stable environment for reconstruction and development. Currently there are 80,000 ISAF troops from 44 countries operating under NATO. ISAFs main role in Afghanistan is to provide security and stability and they achieve this through working together with the Afghan authorities. Therefore the ISAF forces acting jointly with the Afghan Security forces conduct security and stability operations in the whole country.  ISAF also plays its role in the improvement, supporting and development of Afghanistan army by training, mentoring and equipping it by providing donations. These donations are usually in terms of small arms, ammunition, uniforms, tanks, and helicopters. To the Afghan Police Force, ISF provides advice, information and guidance. It also provides joint patrol, mentoring and training them in specific skills.

Other roles played by ISAF include
Disarming of the illegally armed groups - ISAF is involved and committed in disarming and collecting all the illegal weapons and ammunition that are owned by armed groups or by individuals. These weapons are then destroyed so as to reduce the risks on the citizens, the police and the ISAF personnel.

 Facilitating ammunition depots managements - NATO is involved in enhancing and providing physical security at the ammunition depots and also in the development of proper ammunition management. This project has been commissioned and supported by ISAF contributing nations including Canada.

Providing post operation assistance - this is aimed at providing immediate humanitarian assistance in the aftermath of ISAF military operations. It includes provision of food, medicines, shelter and reconstruction of the entire affected infrastructure.

Reconstruction and development - this is achieved through Provincial Reconstruction Teams. These teams are involved in providing security where reconstruction work is underway.

Providing security to permit reconstruction of the country- the PRTs provide security to national and international constructors involved in rebuilding Afghanistan.

Provide humanitarian assistance - ISAF soldiers are involved in providing humanitarian aid in conjunction with international organizations and the Afghan government to the villagers. The aid is usually in terms of food, water and medication. They also assist them with winter supplies to help them cope with bad weather conditions during winter.

Assist in governance through the Provincial Reconstructions Teams - this is aimed at strengthening the government institutions and structures in order to maintain rule of law, promote human rights and establish good governance.

Countering Narcotics - ISAF helps the Afghan Police and government in countering narcotics through supporting is counter narcotics operations, sharing information, providing logistic support and conducting public campaign. It also assists the Afghan security force in training it on ways of countering narcotics.

Canadas role in Afghanistan
Being part of NATO Canadas troops are part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). Therefore we can conclude that Canada is involved in all the roles listed above. But there are other specific roles that the Canadian government plays directly in Afghanistan. Below are the 6 priorities that Canada has set to achieve in Afghanistan.

Stability - it aims at achieving stability in Afghanistan. It is doing this through conducting training of the Afghan National army. It is also training the police and other government officials.

Development - the Canadian government is aiming at developing Afghanistan by providing and improving the education sector, providing basic services and amenities to the citizens and providing and creating employment opportunities to the unemployed majority.

Security - the Canadian government has committed itself to providing security along the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan. It aims at doing this especially in the Federally Administered Tribal areas that act as the military operation base for the insurgents.

The government is also providing humanitarian aid to refugees who have been displaced by the war.
Canada is committed to promoting democracy by supporting the democratic institutions and processes that have been rendered unstable by the war.

It is targeting at reconciling with former insurgents with an aim of achieving political stability.
The Canadian government has also been involved in what is called signature projects. These projects are based in the Kandahar Province in Afghanistan. These projects undertaken by the Canadian government are as a result of its involvement in the war. They include

Dahla Dam irrigation project - the Canadian government has invested 50 million dollars in this project with an aim of enabling irrigation in the region. This project has created many jobs.
The government has put in 12 million dollars to improve the education sector in the Kandahar region.
It has put another 60 million dollars towards polio eradication in the region. This is aimed at immunization of the many children in the Kandahar region and in Afghanistan as a whole.
Other key roles that Canada has played in Afghanistan include

Has assisted in clearing of around a third of approximately 10 to 15 million mines in the country.
It has loaned money to around 140,000 citizens.

It has helped in training Afghan National Security Force that includes the police and the army.
It is involved in storage and decommissioning of weapons e.g. artillery, tanks and rockets that have been left in Afghanistan and were used in decades of Afghanistan conflict
It is involved in the United Nations Assistance Mission which is a civilian led mission in Afghanistan.

It has initiated a Strategic Advisory Team whose main purpose is to monitor the aspects of the Afghan government on issues concerning defense.

Conclusion
Though there are many critics who oppose the involvement of Canada in the Afghanistan conflict, still its involvement has been of benefit to the Afghanistan nationals. Apart from fighting the insurgents, the Canadian troops are involved in a lot of development activities in the country. Its participation is individually as a country and as a member of NATO. Its main focus is on Kandahar Province and it is trying to keep with the efforts of the international community in getting rid of the insurgents in Afghanistan, maintaining political stability and eliminating international terrorism.

In the contemporary world today, a lot of emphasis is been put on history. Globally, history is being considered a benchmark that can be used to solve the problems of the modern times. Great efforts are taking place from one country to the next to acquire clear and concrete proofs on historical facts. Archeologists in this respect have been at the forefront in developing real and concrete materials to support different ideologies in history. Settlement and mobility archeology are aspects that continue to be studied for their great contribution in interpreting any knowledge in the framework of history. Excavation remains important to this quest for its practical orientation. In this regard, this study will elaborate in depth the role of excavation and how it has been adopted by archeologists as far as settlement and mobility patterns are concerned in interpreting diverse historical phenomena.

Introduction
Archeology today has become a discipline of importance to most scholars. Its value has cut across the world as different civilizations have a keen interest in digging out the past human events so that it might solve mysterious problems challenging human life (Hadlock 1947, pp.46). The aim is to acquire the hidden mysterious or knowledge inherent in our history and somehow provide interpretations that can be useful to the present world. Various designs to acquire this knowledge can be used to gain insight from the historical world. In this study a lot shall be considered as far as excavation is concerned and more so indicate how it has contributed to the interpretation system of most archeologists.

Archeology was recognized during 19th and century though its dynamics were confined to Europe. By late 19th and early 20th centuries, archaeology was established enough to be a formal subject area of study, though its main activities were based in Europe, referred to as cradle of civilization in America and southwestern Asia (Deetz 1968, pp. 268). However, currently archaeology is a diverse discipline practiced world wide with aim of revealing past chronological accounts that bear importance to todays man life. There are several definitions that have been advanced as far as archeology is concerned. They are as follows

Archeology is the science that focuses on the study of past human cultures (US Geologic Survey 2000). It is the branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric people and their cultures (Deetz 1968, pp. 267). The search for, and interpretation of, artifacts, usually recovered from underground such as grave goods, building foundations. The sub-field of anthropology that examines past human culture through the excavation and analysis of material remains (Goodwin 1892, pp.284). Archeology is a branch of anthropology where anthropology has been defined as the social science that examines human culture and experience, past and presents (Goodwin 1892, pp.289).

From the above definitions, it is evident that archeology is more concerned with the life of man in the past (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 543).  In other words, it is an investigation of man in the past and everything else that related to him. In this study due consideration will be accorded to settlement patterns and mobility patterns and how their interpretation can derive from excavation. A series of concrete examples shall also be considered.

Approach to archaeological interpretation
There is a great distinction between the methodology in History and that in Archeology. The historical studies are concerned more with secondary data available such as journals, archives or books, while archaeology concern more with excavations. This distinction is worth noting because it helps us understand the methodology carried out in archeology and more importantly, the source of their information or material of study. In this regard, an archeologist who seeks to do any interpretation cannot go to a library and source it from there as no archeological records can be found in a library. There cannot be an effective interpretation if there are no materials available to the archeologist (Deetz 1968, pp. 268-270). In other words, archeology and its entire methodology cannot take place in a vacuum. Archeological records consist of all the information found in archaeological survey, excavation and laboratory analysis. Archaeological record contain vast information that reveal human past showing evidence of occupied areas by humans showed by human remains obtained in those areas.  The obtained remains are studied by archaeologists through field surveys and laboratory studying of collected remains (Goodwin 1892, pp.284).

Archeology however is faced with many challenges and as noted in International History Project in the sense remains that are historical and evidence to past human societies are disintegrated over time and thus not present within archeological records. Whereas surviving excavated remains have been stored through availability of favorable preservation conditions where they are located by regions atmosphere soil or atmosphere. In regard to preservation, only durable and long lasting materials have made it through years. These materials include potsherds from pottery works, bones, building foundations, tools and teeth. In some special cases, objects with short life span have been found to be preserved. For example, flowers and fabrics were excavated in the celebrated tomb of Tutankhamun where in 1323BC the Egyptian pharaoh was buried. Tutankhamen remains a significant archaeological site even today as this tomb and its treasures were discovered by a British archaeologists Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter in 1922 (Goodwin 1892, pp.284).

Fig. 1 Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen (1343-1325 BC).
It is worth noting that archeological records exist in diverse ways and hence the difference on the method of interpretation. For example, human and animal remains, artifacts, or man-made objects, or plant and provide one mode that archeological records can take. Structural elements, hearths and pits, village sites or cemeteries are another mode that archeological records take. Technology, settlement and subsistence patters and social systems are also another mode of existence that archeological records take. The aspect of technology is understood from the study of shelter, tools and mode of acquiring raw materials utilized to manufacture them. Emphasis on the tools used, traces of former shelters and capturing the source of their raw materials acts as strong archeological evidence. Economic practices especially on how food was gathered and the uses of food resources define the subsistence patterns. Archeologists, therefore, interpret subsistence from the tools used to acquire food, animal and plant remains.

As noted earlier, archeologists system of interpretation will vary due to the material of study. For example, an archeologist who seeks to provide information as far as technology is concerned will dwell much on the tools. Whereas the one who seeks to provide information on settlement patterns will consider getting it based on type and distribution of sites, and which relates to the prehistoric land use practices. From the above example, it can be noted that the two archeologists will concentrate on different material objects and this is what will make their interpretations unique (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 543). By analogy, a person carrying out a study on the effects of smoke on children will dwell much on children psychology and every thing that pertains to the children contrary to the person who sets out to carry out a study on the effects of fire on old people. Their interpretations will vary greatly due to their object of study. However, archeologists share common objectives despite the differences in their interpretations. They help in shaping history from a causal viewpoint and hence harmonize our understanding of the cultural sequences from a local point of view and a regional point of view and in fact, from a global point of view. They add the value of universality to the held cultural sequence. History is playing a great role in the world today in the highly held quest for formation of United Nations bodies as this cannot be meaningful if culture is not well constructed.

Interpretation of settlement orand mobility
To have a good interpretation of settlement andor mobility patterns it is important to establish the existence of the aspects that characterize them. As discussed in approach to archaeological interpretation, technology is characterized by tools, shelters and used so any interpretation regarding technology shall be acquired by examining the tools used and not the food eaten. To give a technology-based interpretation basing on food or clothing will amount to a misinterpretation. Therefore, how do settlement orand mobility manifest itself This is a question that guides the interpretation of settlement patterns within context of archaeological field.

Settlement pattern is defined as human population distribution of across the earth landscape. Therefore for archaeologists to interpret settlement patterns of a given population from different distributions and types of sites can be interpreted basing on excavated prehistoric land use practices. Useful land use key to interpretation can be social systems encompassing religious belief, sociopolitical and institutions of cultures. The mobility orand settlement characteristics in a given social systems is evident by burial practices, decorations, and artifact forms that are indicative of individual status and social roles in the society (Deetz 1968, pp. 268).

In order to interpret settlement and mobility, settlement archaeology is utilized in the sense studies implantation and selection criteria of settlements in the landscape. Moreover, settlement archaeology deals with interrelationships between urban centers and their rural set ups, human settlement impact on the natural environment in the past era. Thus, settlement archaeology aims at reconstructing cultures of ancient urban and their hinterlands, and rural settlements (Goodwin 1892, pp.301).
Settlement archaeological research is by definition a multidisciplinary enterprise requiring expertise from the disciplines of the natural and social sciences, architecture and city planning, as well as specialized techniques related to the retrieval, recording, analysis and data bank management of archaeological data (GIS), site conservation and cultural resource management. Disciplines and interdisciplinary sub-disciplines required in addition to archaeology include geology, environmental geomorphology, archaeozoology, paleontology, paleobotany, archaeometry, ancient history, anthropology, sociology, urban geography, classical architecture and city planning (Settlement Archeology 2007).

Before 1940, archaeologists prepared site locations and site maps, but little attention was paid to settlement patterns. There were few detailed studies emphasizing the disposition of artifacts and ruins over large regions prior to Willeys investigations of Perus Vir Valley. In 1946 and 1953, field surveys were combined with aerial photography to produce detailed maps of all of the archaeological features of the valley. He looked at archeological evidence on a regional scale. He applied this approach in the Vir Valley Project resulting in the publication of prehistoric settlement patters in the Vir Valley (Willey 2009). See below a figure showing a team of archeologist in excavation activities in the Valley of Vir.

Fig 2. Western students Flannery Surette and Christine Boston conduct archeological excavations at Huaca Gallinazo in the Viru Valley, Peru

Settlements reflect not only a societys natural environment and level of technological sophistication, but also the influence of various institutions of social interaction and control on which the culture is maintained (19531). Traditional settlement pattern analysis involves classifying sites within a region using previously established functional categories (Williams and Seaward 1976, pp. 540).

Katharina (2010, pp. 459) notes that Archaeological settlement surveys, as they were often done in the past, and are still done in many parts of the world, were typically designed to locate sites for excavation. Other forms of survey were designed to locate particular site types pertaining to a particular time period, for example, Iron Age Hill Forts in England. Modern surveys, however, address entire regions and focus on problems of long-term cultural change. Settlement archeology is more inclined to region, in other words it brings forth issues of a regional nature. Settlement archaeology tends to address issues of a regional nature, including such problems as hunter-gatherer subsistence and the emergence of political complexity an observation made by Katharina (2010).
Jean Francois is on record for his efforts to explore Gallinazo Group a 2,000 year old city that has barely been touched by excavators.  At 70 hectares in size, the Gallinazo Group was one of the largest urban centre, in the New World, during its existence. It was built by a people that some archaeologists refer to as the Gallinazo culture.

Fig. 3 This figure shows several mounds of the Gallinazo Group city.
Warren Air Force Base is a historical fact where Native American Families pulled their travois before even the military families pulled their travel trailers there. Natine Americans began camping in the Base areas back many years approximated to be 11,500 years ago during the Paleo-Indian period. The goal of the 1992 fieldwork, then, was to determine the extent of the buried portion of the site to the south expand samples of diagnostics, tools, and subsistence remains and examine geomorphologically similar locales to the west to determine whether 48LA277 is a unique site or whether similar areas along the Crow Creek drainage were used in similar manners (Millaire 2009, pp. 115). The resulting information wasused both in the interpretive center and to enhance the existing knowledge of the prehistory of the area. The artifacts and records are stored and curated at the Bases state-of-the-art curation facility (Melissa 1997, pp. 32). In 1991, a total of 3.5 cubic meters of site 48LA277 was excavated within five excavation units. Within these units, six fire pits were found and four totally excavated. The fire pits yielded radiocarbon dates, pollen, and macrobotanical specimens, as well as lithic and faunal materials. The excavations outside the fire pits also yielded cultural remains, resulting in a total of 108 lots of faunal material, 227 pieces of lithic material, and two ceramic sherds. This testing suggested that much more cultural material was present than was originally thought (Melissa 1997, pp. 21). The interpretations out of the knowledge acquired through the above mentioned exercise helps to determine when the land-use patterns began and how they varied overtime.

Another excavation activity was carried out at Golden rock and Smoke Alley. The only way to get an idea of the structure of a settlement is by using an excavation technique with large-size pits. Such methods were used at the Golden Rock and Smoke Alley sites. An essentially uninterrupted area of 3300 m2 was excavated in the former site only less than 10 had to remain unexcavated between the large excavation pits.It is evident those large-scale excavations, and a detailed analysis of all features (discolorations that are the result of Indian activities), are necessary to obtain basic data for the archaeology of the Caribbean at the lowest level that of the individual structure, and that of the settlement. Such data yield detailed information on the prehistoric Caribbean villages, and that means on the communities that lived in these villages (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998). The GR-1 excavations have provided many new, and partially unique, data on the structure of a Saladoid settlement. Proof was found that middens have, in a geographical (spatial) perspective, a direct relationship with houses (living areas). The houses are characterized by a round shape, and strong, vertical supporting posts which were founded several meters deep in the ground (Archeologisch Museum Aruba cited by Millaire 2009, pp. 106).

Fig. 4One of the large postholes of the Maloca
There is no doubt that protein was primarily procured from marine resources the archaeological record and the isotope analyses of human bone are in agreement here. Meat from iguanas, agutis, rice-rats, birds, and landcrabs offered, without doubt, a welcome change to the usual meat intake, which consisted of fish and shellfish. A probable deficiency in the archaeological record (the lack of a representative number of conch, Strombus gigas) prevents an estimation of the relative importance of the latter food sources fish may or may not have been a more important protein supplier than shellfish. The isotope analyses favor an important position for shellfish, but as yet it is impossible to come to pertinent conclusions. Shellfish in large quantities were probably available from the sandy flats in front of the beaches (Strombus gigas), and from the rocky shores (Cittarium pica), on both the windward and leeward sides of the island (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998). In the case of Smoke Alley it was noted that Excavation of five 1 m test pits established that the midden was approximately 10 x 10 meters in size. Excavation of four large machine-made (255 m, pits resulted in the discovery of 80 features. Sixty-five of them proved to be postholes. Twelve postholes belong to one slightly oval 10-meter diameter house, 7 others belong to a round 8-meter diameter house (Archeologisch Museum Aruba 1998, cited by Trigger 1968, p. 36)

A study was conducted in medieval mound in Tuscany, Italy by the Laboratory for Landscape Archeology and remote sensing, University of Siena research team during aerial prospection in spring 2005. Analysis of the aerial photographs allowed interpretation of the site as a triple-ditched enclosure. During subsequent field-walking survey a number of archaeological artifacts were collected and mapped. Differential global positioning system (DGPS) survey confirmed the morphological pattern of the site, which seems to represent a survival of the Early Medieval Age settlement pattern on the coastal plain (Millaire 2009, pp. 109). The field-walking and DGPS surveys were followed by a programme of geophysical survey combining three different methods differential magnetics (Overhauser probe), ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and Automatic Resistivity Profiler (Millaire 2009, pp. 106). Finally, three sample areas were excavated, mainly to test the evidence collected previously. The excavation data - ditches, post-holes, domestic pottery, animal bones, and wall remains - support the interpretation of the site as the first earth-and-timber castle mound, or motte, to be identified in Tuscany (Wiley 2009).

Recent archaeological excavations at Vindolanda, Northumberland and at York have uncovered considerable quantities of bryophytic material. The mosses are considered here not in terms of their value to the archaeologist as indicators of prevailing environmental conditions but from an ethnological viewpoint. There is strong reason to believe that the mosses at both sites were deliberately harvested in large quantities and employed mainly for their bedding, packing, insulatory and absorbent qualities (Seaward  Williams 1976). Large-scale excavations took place in the site of Inamgaon in Western India to unravel in order to acquire some information about the culture of the Chalcolithic farmers. Excavations were carried out twelve seasons (1969-1982). The main objective in undertaking large-scale excavations at Inamgaon was to obtain detailed knowledge of material culture of the Chalcolithic farmers (Sheena 1999).

Fig. 5 At Inamgaon site, the dried up river Ghod
Mobility, concerns the archaeological excavations regarding hunter-gatherer society which was their primary method of obtaining subsistence for their family by directly procuring edible animals and plants from the wild without intent of domestication. Because of difficulties accrued from hunting historically, the hunter-gatherers usually obtained 80 of their substance from gathering than hunting. Kelly (1983, pp. 279) states that hunter-gatherers society is characterized by egalitarianism because mobility requires minimal material possessions for society. Therefore, interpretation can be based minimal structural constructions, and remains found as there were no surplus resources for accumulation by any individual member. An example of excavation on mobility is cited in Australia by Chase (1989, p. 46) is represented below.

Fig.6 19th Century Indigenous Australian encampment engraving
Moreover, Hoffman (1955, p. 45) developed a modern comprehensive model relying on ethnohistoric sources but sensitive to aboriginal culture changes. Hoffmans comprehensive model is simple cyclical model representing late prehistoric era featuring inland hunting during winter and coastal habitation during summer with scarce resources. The representation was represented on a circular chart that showed flora and fauna availability for each season, resource exploitation areas, and social groupings size.

Conclusion
From our study, we can see that excavation plays a very big role in understanding history. It offers credibility to theoretical knowledge we have as far as different aspects of our historical knowledge are concerned. In deed, settlement and mobility will make little sense if it is not backed by some concrete evidence. Whenever archeologists set out to carry out some findings, excavation is a major factor just as science requires laboratory test. We know that science can only develop sound theories after empirical verifications done in the laboratory. We can argue on the same note that archeologists can develop sound knowledge after an excavation process. Though excavation can be considered risky especially when carried out in places that are unsafe, for example, in the desert, forests, secluded places and even tombs the society should recognize it as a value. Today, so many discoveries have been made due to the courageous efforts of the archeologist and in deed shaping the history and adding more substance to it. We cannot dispute that knowledge without concrete evidence is null and void. In modern world people need facts to support what they would consider knowledge.

For my term project, I have chosen to write about the development if airplanes during the first and the second world wars. The paper shall trace the history of airplanes through extensive and intensive research from relevant sources such as books and published articles that will support my ideas. In doing so, I shall also seek to apply research strategies necessary in writing a quality term paper. To guide this project will be a research question of which, throughout the paper, I will seek to answer and support my views by use of relevant sources.

In my paper, the main question to be addressed will also be split into simpler questions in order to enhance relevance and clarity. For instance, I will seek to show how the change in airplane technology and development has impacted on peoples lives differently over time. This will involve researching on all the ways through history that the airplane has been used by man. Most notably, airplanes have been utilized best in war and for transportation purposes hence the paper will give weight to these two areas.

The paper will also be keen to trace the history of airplanes from the time of invention by the Wright brothers up to World War II. The different models and features of airplanes back then will be discussed more so highlighting the differences between the airplanes used in the World War I and World War II in order to identify the implication of the development and technology of airplanes on humanity. One thing the paper will not ignore is the fact that airplanes have developed differently more in Europe and the US. Germany is a major player this industry in Europe and was heavily involved in both world wars hence its history in airplane making is important to this paper. Specifically, I will highlight how the two regions have handled the challenges in airplane design and how their environment and needs influenced airplane design.

Throughout this paper, the delivery of the ideas has to be precise and supported by relevant sources to gain credibility. According to book the Craft of Research, Booth, Colomb and Williams (2008) say that direct quotataions from sources are part of writing style and add to the prose of the text if used well.

In conclusion, my paper will wrap all the ideas presented in the body and connect these to the main research question stated at the beginning of the paper. A well concluded paper shows that the writer is well aware of the implications of the ideas presented in the paper on his audience.

Why did not more countries behave like Denmark towards their Jewish population during World War

The saving of the Jews in Denmark came about for the duration of Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark throughout World War II. After Hitler prearranged with the intention of Danish Jews be detained and expatriated on 12 October 1943, a lot of Danes participated in a cooperative effort to relinquish the approximately 8,000 Jews of Denmark by means of sea to close proximity impartial Sweden. The let go permitted the enormous greater part of Denmarks Jewish inhabitants to stay away from incarceration by the Nazis and is well thought-out to be one of the biggest procedures of communal opposition to authoritarianism and oppression in the states taken by Nazi Germany. As a consequence of the let go and Danish intervention on behalf of the Danish Jews who were extradited to Theresienstadt shipment base camp in Bohemia, Denmarks Jewish inhabitants endured the Holocaust. Among the reasons for saving the Danish Jews was the Denmarks Jewish inhabitants had extendedly been nearly entirely incorporated into Danish culture, and a few component of the little Jewish population had ascended to reputation, e.g. Nobel Prize winner Niels Bohr. As a result, nearly every of the Danes professed the Nazis stroke in opposition to Denmarks Jews like an offense to every Danes, thus came together to the defense of their nations resident.

Some countries never saved their Jewish citizens because of the fear of the Nazis. The Nazi invasion of Eastern Europe was extra atrocious and unsympathetic than Western Europe. This was as a result of Nazis ideology that viewed the Nazi-occupied states according to their ethnic class. Nazi misinformation observed the Eastern Europeans as ethnically substandard to Aryan Germans whereas the people of Western countries like Poland were Nazi-occupied such that those found concealing and defending Jews were chastised by being killed. The rule of Nazi in Poland authorized death not merely for the individuals or groups occupied in saving and offering security, but for affiliate of their relatives too. Detention camps were erected at designated places for Poles on top of Jews. Poles along with Jews were racially purified starting with some regions of Western Poland which had great racial German inhabitants. In contrast to other regions, the invasion of Denmark, by assessment, was moderately compassionate. No anti-Jewish decrees were initiated, there was no ghetto creation, and moreover no detention camps were built. Food was by no means as ruthlessly measured, compared to Poland together with supplementary Eastern European nations. The capability of citizens in the broad populace to help protect and rescue Jews at their peril was powerfully dependent on the brutality and environment of the invasion. The largest part of Denmarks Jews was salvaged, while most of Polands Jews were exterminated and wiped out.

There were a lot of people who were terrified to help. Nevertheless, on occasions, citizens botched to take action not for the reason that they were self-centered or self engrossed, but since they did not encompass thoughts, inventiveness, endeavor, or general intelligence, or their unpreparedness plus they had no task leaders. The nearer a Nazi invaded nation was to an impartial country or a state that was not caught up in the conflict, the simpler it was for the fatalities to run away to protection, although the unbiased or un-invaded nation had to be ready to allow immigrants in. The get away course in addition had to be moderately gratis of obstruction and dangers that hinder running away. Among the unbiased impartial countries during World War II included Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal.

The Japanese military perception that they were immune from any attack changed after the Doolittle attack. This created the need to improve their defense perimeters and extend eastwards. Midway, which is a small island became their target. The island was about six hundred miles away from the American island, Hawaii and therefore the approaching Japanese military attracted the attention of the American military officials. While the Japanese were determined to win the battle at Midway and threw all their military resources into the battle, the United States military intelligence was aware of their plans. In the tiny island, the United States military had little military hardware. They had three aircraft carriers and 14 destroyers as compared to the approaching Japanese fleet which had six aircraft carriers and over fifty destroyers.

The United States military intelligence was lucky to have discovered the approaching fleet and take necessary measures before the Japanese attacked. The United States military arranged for backups and air attacks quickly enough before the Japanese fleet reached Midway Island. The United States military bombed the fleet in the midmorning hours of 4th June 1942 and within a very short time, they had destroyed three of the six carriers. One of the carriers, Hiryu, was able to resist the attack and managed to sink the Yorktown. However, the carrier was traced in the afternoon by the American aircrafts and was significantly damaged. The next day, the United States aircraft and carriers went after the retreating Japanese fleets. They were able to damage two cruisers seriously although they were not destroyed completely.  

The United States commanders had acted swiftly to defend the island by increasing the number of men and military hardware because a defeat at Midway threatened the Americans especially Hawaii Island. On the other hand, the Japanese commanders were planning the biggest attack since the beginning of the war. The Japanese believed that if they were able to defeat the Americans in the pacific and possible sink all their fleets, the fate of the war would be decided.

Despite the big gains to the Japanese and their allies in the war, if they were able to defeat the Americans in the pacific, the Japanese were not aware that the United States military intelligence was breaking their codes as they planned to invade Midway. Although the US naval intelligence was aware of the planned invasion since the Pearl Harbor attack, they had limited information on the attack and did not know the target. The defeat of the Japanese at the Midway was a big step backwards in their bid to control the pacific waters. The commander Yamamito admitted that he had made a big mistake in planning the attack and assigning a lot of resources to the operation. He apologized to the Japanese government through the Emperor and resigned from his duties. However, the defeat was kept as a secret by the government and the public had no idea of the battle. The injured soldiers were secretly sneaked into the military hospitals.

The Japanese plan to gain control over the pacific by defeating the Americans is considered by many historian as a major cause of failure in the Second World War. The battle of Midway Island is one of the most significant attempts by the Japanese to undermine the United States powers in the pacific.