History

The Counterlife is thought to be a meaningful novel to Philip Roth as it effectively delivers his personal questions regarding his true identity being a member of Jewish-American race.  The main character Henry Zuckerman plays as his model, and the protagonists search for the meaning of his existence being a ma, a Jew, and a human being believably reflects those of him.  Perhaps not all of the authors experiences are depicted though, but the thoughts that come to Philip Roths mind are successfully delivered.

 The essence of The Counterlife novel, which is life, death and counterlife, along with the issue of a mans journey in search of his meaning and importance, would not be a success if the author Philip Roth is not that good enough in making almost realistic fiction.  The thin line between reality and fantasy overcomes Roths searching through his alter ego Henry Zuckerman, the protagonist in the story, and Nathan Zuckerman, the younger brother of Henry, who acts as the alter ego of the protagonist.

 The Counterlife discusses taboo topics such as sex life of the middle-aged characters that young minds would not be ready to perceive.  However, the representation could not be viewed as vulgar and pornographic.  As a result, the novel still possesses the quality that majority of its audience would surely enjoy.  Moreover, the content about religious matters such as Zionism and Judaism, the transition of the characters beliefs and principles following his soul searching, and the discussion concerning Jewish  American custom and culture makes the book informative, educational and more commendable to examine.

Book Summary
 The first chapter sets in Basel.  Nathan Zuckerman mourns while recalling his Brother Henrys memories as the latter did not survive at the heart bypass surgery.  Before the operation takes place, Henry suffered impotency believably because of his continuous heart medications.  As Nathan recalls, Henry has to undergo heart treatment and the drugs that he was religiously taking could be the nearest possible cause of Henrys impotency.

Eventually, Henry dies from the complications while physicians were trying to cure him through heart bypass.  Nathan as a responsible brother wants to give him a eulogy but fails to do so.  Thus, he makes a letter on which the disclosure about their adulterous conduct and sexual escapades are revealed.  Before the chapter closes, Nathan remembers Henrys affair with his dental assistant at the height of his denial about impotency.

 In second episode, which sets in Judea, the story revolves about Henry who wanted to live his life to the fullest and eager to fulfill his mission being a Jew.  The difference between American Jew and Israeli Jew is discussed.  He moves to Israel where he believes that a true blue Jew truly belongs in here.  Nathan goes after him in Israel and started tracing where he exactly is because he is so much worried about Henry knowing that he leaves his wife and kids just to follow his instinct.  It is also clear in this chapter that Henrys decision is self-urged to be a part of a Zionism movement in Jewish homeland.  The heart condition of Henry and his death, as formerly given, is neither mentioned nor hinted in this chapter.

 In Aloft chapter, Nathan still narrates his travel experience as he heads back to England from Israel.  He put it in paper.  In here, it also details the colorful and exciting part of the book as Nathan encountered a supposedly plane accident and nearly hijacking incident both in the same trip.  This moment brings childhood memories to Nathan where he and Henry used to play exactly like this.

 Chapter four Gloucestershire sets another twist and turn in the story.  Says in this episode, it is Nathan who actually dies from heart bypass operation after failing to be cured from so much medication that also caused Nathans impotency.  The heart treatment for Nathan is not successful.  Nathan eventually dies.  Henry could not overcome his grief and could not afford to find words in the eulogy.  After the last salute for Nathan, Henry goes to Nathans house to recall his brothers memories.  There he finds out an untitled epistle written by his brother.  The bizarre thing for this is that the epistle that Henry discovered is no other than The Counterlife novel.

 Fifth chapters title is the only title that is not a place unlike the previous four chapters.  Christendom chapter provides the concluding part of the novel.  From chapter two where Nathan heads back to England, he is now finally home with his young wife.  Henry in here is still alive, and the impotency dilemma is discussed once again, the circumcision as part of Jewish culture, as well as Nathans wife fertility and point of views with regards to all of these things.  Moreover, Anti-Semitism and societys discrimination are other problems that the Zuckermans are arguing.

About the Author
Philip Milton Roth has been one of the well-acclaimed honorable American novelists of the literary fiction genre.  He obtains numerous awards, and one of them is the Pulitzer Prize, which was given to him in 1997 for his American Pastoral novel.  His other awards were the PENFaulkner Awards for Fiction which he won three times, the Best Book of the Year recognized by the United Kingdoms prestigious award giving bodies WH Smith Literary Awards for his The Human Stain novel, and received twice both the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Award.

Most of Roths novels explore the topic of Jewish and American lives for his characters mainly because he considered himself a descendant of this combined race as he really is.  He receives publics approval and appreciation after he launched his first ever novel entitled Goodbye, Columbus in 1959.  It has been incontestably continued up to this date as his theme gets more and more interesting.

Philip Roth champions the semi-autobiographical kind of literary piece.  Because of this, he makes a niche of his own for magically intertwining the connection between reality and fiction without even noticing their distinction.  The making of an almost real life character  narrators such as David Kepesh, Alexander Portnoy, Philip Roth the character and his favorite Nathan Zuckerman captivates the attention and curiosity of his audience as well as his critics around the world.

The Zuckermans Characters
 The Zuckerman characters starts to appear as Nathan Zuckerman existed in the 1979 novel The Ghost Writer novel although a glimpse of him could also be read at the My Life as a Man in 1974.  After this, the full blown series of his life story was presented in nine different and sometimes sequential books of Philip Roth.  The existence of Zuckermans ends in his 2007 book Exit Ghost.  Believably, Nathan Zuckerman mostly functioned as an alter ego in which the authors thoughts and principles are reflected through this fictional character.

The success of this protagonist makes Roth popular and financially successful although it somehow encompassed criticisms and intrigue because of some scandalous portrayal of true life experiences.  It motivates Philip Roth to expand the existence of this well-known character.  Hence, he develops another character related to it and named Henry Zuckerman, the younger brother of Nathan.
Henry Zuckerman is the main protagonist of the novel The Counterlife.  Although at some point, Nathan and Henrys importance in the story provides equal weight the narrative tackles most of Henrys life, thoughts and adventure.  As usual, Nathans existence only provides as Henrys alter ego.

Book Review
The title itself, The Counterlife, offers a thought-provoking meaning.  From understanding the entire novel, one could say that the counterlife or the alternative life is not only presented to either of the two Zuckermans.  It is equally given to both of them as the story portrays their lives, deaths and the life beyond the death of one.

Discussing topics such as middle-age crisis particularly sex life crisis of a middle-aged man, beliefs, religion and activism are the major issues of this novel.  For the middle age crisis, the situation where a man begins to have sexual malfunction could only denote as the beginning of their ending.  Since a man is sexual by nature, their sexual activity is their recognized life that when it fails could only mean death to them.  The symbolism of penile impotency also provides an intellectual representation pertaining to ones counterlife.

    Beliefs, religion and activism as another issues emerge in the novel, Philip Roth surpass the challenge of putting them altogether even with the presence of taboo discussions.  It could also be a part of mans middle age crisis to embrace his newly found principles at the expense of his present lifestyle and status.  To some, this is called soul-searching.  Henry or Nathan comes to the point where they wanted to leave their American identity and follow the traditional Jewish custom, which probably Philip Roths biggest frustration.

Although personal and sexual lives of the characters are mostly the issue, the book may still be a very good influence to the Jews especially to the ones in modern generation who may see himself unfaithful to their beliefs and religion.  The death, life and counterlife theme could be reflected to the chapter two alone where Henry wishes to be a part of a politically motivated religious movement in the homeland of Jews, the Israel.  The books existence might not be called a Jewish book but really one of the important materials on understanding Jewishs norms and Zionism beliefs and principled actions.  Roth should be applauded for bringing this into light.

It might be so much confusion to the readers how could the story evolves like that allowing the twist among Nathan and Henrys lives.  The dramatic manifestation of mysterious existence of one where in fact one is already dead at the beginning of the novel, and resurrects to make the other one face the same situation is highly artistic.  There is no other author who can make such kind of transition rather than Philip Roth himself who at some minutes a perfect resemblance of his own character Nathan Zuckerman.

    The success of the book owes the author to his own intellect focusing on real life dilemma and places mixing up with fictional characters that is set in an unexplained sequence of events.  Through offering the mid-life crisis of Nathan and the counterlife of Henry and  or vice versa, the twist creates two separate fictional realities yet somehow intertwines.  The overall context of the book creates a positive outlook more than that of gloominess even though deaths of the protagonists became the chief instrument performing such life cycles depiction partly because of some funny scenes which includes sex-life or sex-less life of the characters.

The Native Americans (aboriginals) are the indigenous peoples from the Northern America who existed in the pre-Columbian period. These people comprise a large number of various tribes and ethnic groups, some of which still exist. Since the beginning of colonization of America by the Europeans, cultures and lives of the aboriginals have been influenced and changed. Subsequently, the numbers of the natives were then reduced greatly, the fact attributed to infectious diseases, displacement and warfare. Conflicts and misunderstandings between the different cultures of the Native Americans, Europeans and other cultures were then eminent due to cultural differences (Fisher, 1985).
However, the colonization did not last since different colonies formed alliances and revolted against Great Britain in the late 18th century. This revolution, though, was the beginning of a great strife for the natives. The leaders of the colonies George Washington and Henry Knox came up with an idea of preparing the aboriginals for American-hood by civilization. The assimilation of these natives then became paramount throughout the American administration (Fisher, 1985). This assimilation was provided in order to create space for the American expansion under the Manifest destiny ideology that had become a national philosophy in the American movement. Consequently, OSullivans Manifest destiny was used as a justification for the westward expansion of the United States which had serious consequences for the indigenous Americans, who were forced to relocate further to the west.
In 1830 president Andrew Jackson and the Congress passed the Indian Removal Act that led the relocation of thousands of Native Americans from the east to the west despite the decrees passed previously by the Marshall Court in Georgia. This policy was however opposed by Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen. The act nevertheless came into frorce and gave the government power that led to a series of negotiated treaties for relocation of the natives. However, many natives remained in the east and formed tribal groups, though pressure was mounted on their leaders to sign the removal treaties. The removal of the Cherokee from the Northern Mississippi in 1838 was one of the great relocations that led to the Trail of Tears after the signing of the dubious second treaty after the Cherokee Treaty of New Echota. This relocation left thousands of natives dead due to diseases, exhaustion and starvation along the way (Williams, 2008). Other tribes like the Sauk and Fox, who had resettled to the west of Mississippi, also went back under the leadership of Black Hawk in 1831, to reclaim their rights for homes to the east of the river. Their efforts, however, were not fruitful and they relocated back to Iowa. However they made another attempt in the winter of 1831-32 that resulted in war, which caused  great losses to the Sauk people and forced them to retreat to the north.
The transportation revolution during the period 1815-1840
The period 1815-1840 in American was also known as the era of welfare and a period of great transformations and industrialization for America. However, the financial crisis of 1819, Panic of 1819, changed the perspective of Americas economy. The Transportation Revolution at this time was in the wake of the American industrialization and the western expansion and urbanization. This period was marked by the establishment of factories, industries and new inventions, focused on improving communication, time saving and efficiency in transportation (Sydney, 2006). The transport revolution in the beginning of 1830s saw the emergence of new forms of transportation like canals, roads, bridges, clipper ships, steam power and railroads. According to Sydney (2001)
Some of the developments include the building of the Erie Canal near New York, opened in 1825, the construction of a highway across America, the National Road in 1811 till the early 1800s, the introduction of a steamship, the Clermont, on the Hudson River by Livingston, which monopolized the ferry service there until 1824 and led to construction of more canals, the chartering in 1828 of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and the launching of the clipper ship in 1845 by John W. Griffiths, which further became instrumental during the gold rush period. (p.76)
This revolution was a great contribution to the American economy and saw the economy burst from the previous financial crisis. It led to the rapid growth of cities and towns that had just been absorbed, with population increasing from 6 of people in 1820 to 20 in 1860. The creation of railroads aided the relocation of new settlers to the west and movement of western farm produce to markets. The growth of new markets, the expansion into new farms and the creation of new factories became rampant in the peripherals of America (Sydney, 2006). This therefore, created a good foundation for the development of an integrated American economy before the beginning of World War 1. Due to this, the great scale of capital investment at that time that led to the economic growth and even establishment of banks. Different tribes intermingled at this point due to the cross-country migration of settlers and workers to industries and farms. Politically the revolution enabled America to acquire new territories and also develop them. This became the period of great political changes with the opposition to the methods that used for acquisition.
The MexicanAmerican War
      The MexicanAmerican War led between 1846 and 1848 was an armed conflict between Mexico and the United States. The war was led in the dawn of the US  seizure of Texas claimed to be owned by Mexico in 1845. However, the genesis of the Mexican-American War can be backtracked to the 1836 when Texas claimed its independence from Mexico. After the 1836 duel and independence of Texas, the United States, Great Britain, and France offered Texas diplomatic recognition and thus prevented Mexico form engaging Texas. This victory, however, did not ring well with the Mexicans, who vehemently refused to recognize Texas as a republic on its own (Haberle, 2003).
After Texas declared its independence, it tried to forge a way to joining the United States but could not, due to the American diplomatic ties with Mexico. However, after the election of James K. Polk a pro-annexation candidate in 1845, Texas was declared a member state of the United States. Immediately after Texas had joined the United State, a dispute began over the Texas southern boarder (Haberle, 2003). This was caused by the fact that the claim concerning the Rio Grande boundary by the Texans had not been included in the annexation resolution due to the failure of the Treaty in the Senate, which, however, did not stop president Polk from vehemently claiming it. Due to this, troops were sent to the area by both countries with an intention to protect their interest, which sparked a war. After the occupation of the boarder by  the troops both from America and Mexico, a declaration of war was set into motion in 1846 by the American Congress after Captain Seth Thornton was attacked by the Mexican troops (Winders, 1997).
The declaration of war was however opposed greatly by some members of the Congress, such as John Quincy Adams, Abraham Lincoln, Henry David Thoreau under the amendment of slavery key. However, the southern democrats on the other hand supported the war in hope that it might help justify the American expansion under the Manifest destiny. Subsequently, the American Congress issued the declaration of war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. This eventually led to a war that saw the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to end the war in 1848 (Winders, 1997).
The Demise of the Second Party System
The term Second Party System was a term that was used to refer to the 1828 to 1854 political party system existing in the United States. The last president to hold office under the second party system was Franklin Pierce and it carried out the popular electoral vote in both the North and South before Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office (Paul, Boyer, Clifford, Sandra, Joseph, Andrew, 2009). However, after Pierce was in office for only four years, the Whigs party dissolved and was replaced by the American Republican party.
This second party system had worked as a pro-antislavery advocate and kept the government occupied with other issues in order to take their focus away from it. However, by the 1850s the debate over slavery took another turn after it become top of the governments agenda. The divisions within the Whigs made them more vulnerable to the issue and the signing of the Douglas proposal to organize the greater Nebraska territory by late 1854 with no restrictions on slavery led to the demise of their party. This bill was originally intended by Douglas to show the American interest to facilitate national expansion to the west but it gave base to the expansion of slavery (Paul et al., 2009).
This led to the nullification of the Missouri compromise and divided the territory into northern Nebraska and southern parts Kansas. The southern part Kansas then was opened to slavery and led to uproars through out the country by the free-soil activists. Slavery was given power and the industrialists at the time took advantage of the situation to acquire as much slaves for their industries (Altschuler, Glenn, Stuart, 1997). This also gave way to the expansion into the new territories a fact that led to the displacement of the native occupants. Natives were forced to migrate to the west in the call of national expansion while some of them were taken as slaves by the slave breeders and slave traders.

The progression and development of the African American movement would not have been successful if not for the inputs and attempts of individuals to continuously recognize their significance and relevance in American society. Their undying efforts to equalize and find opportunities for imparting change becomes the catalyst in upholding the change necessary and the consensus towards finding the necessary elements shaping their role in society. Given these opportunity, there are certain themes in the clamor for equalization and alternatives that remains to be influential in shaping the ways to impart the notions for development.
    One important theme can be considered relevant to the plight of African Americans involve the speech made by Booker T. Washington. In his address, he exemplified the relevance and significance of African Americans in American society. Despite the initial attempts by the Whites to subjugate their roles to mainly agriculture and relatively have inferior roles in society, the essence and values that they portray showcase the positive elements of culture. These comprise of (1) patience, (2) perseverance, and (3) law-abiding.
    At the same time, the perspective of Washington seeks to portray an African American who is dynamic and responsive to the changes. In the speech, it is said that if anywhere there are efforts tending to curtail the fullest growth of the Negro, let these efforts be turned into stimulating, encouraging and making him the most useful and intelligent citizen. This positive view towards seeking change remains essential in finding the right mindset in clamoring for equality. At the same time, it fosters the same amount of respect on how African Americans have contributed to the development and growth of the country.
     Another theme that can be included and holds a beneficial ground resounds on the arguments presented by Henry McNeal Turner. His point of view corresponds to the justification of the growth and development of African Americans. Despite the common conceptions about their inferiority compared to whites, the perspective highlighted by Turner justifies their capacity to become involved in deeper state and societal affairs. They are in very essence part of the American race. These have been justified by their participation and relentless service provided to the country. It can be seen here that there is the desire for equality and realization towards respecting ones worth. What the black man needs is a country and surroundings in harmony with his color and with respect for his manhood.
    This theme then becomes the essential building blocks of nationalism and identity. It is in here that the perspective of being American despite the differences in color and social status becomes recognized. These then brings about the condition towards shaping the value and importance of freedom. African Americans need the corresponding value of respect and determination to achieve this. Likewise, it is an essential component that shapes altogether their plight to uplift the common misconceptions and standards given. If the Negro is to be a man, full and complete, he must take part in everything that belongs to manhood.
    The last aspect that can be included within the theme of the African American Movement would be the desire to sustain and influence continuity of the struggle towards equality. Under W.E.B. Dubois statement, it is the relevance of education that provides such impetus in gaining advantage and recognition towards change. The realization towards development comes from learning the past mistakes and trying to induce new ways for African Americans to diversify their capabilities and strengths accordingly. Education and work are the levers to uplift people. These two components become the driving force in realizing that the past inadequacies can be attainable.
    Moreover, this remains also to be an influential dimension shaping recognition among African Americans. Since many clamor for equality and ending discrimination, there needs to be justification for such. Each action must coincide with the desire to improve and develop. The common perspectives of hard work and education should remain the motivation shaping actions by people. At the same time, continuity and transcendence need to be made so as to foster growth. It can be seen that the Talented Tenth of the Negro race must be made leaders of thought and missionaries of culture among their people. The lack of these changes would then limit and disengage the value that African American patriots have long strived for. 
    On the other hand, the argument and theme presented by Frances E. W. Harper showcases the notion of using religion as a basis for fighting towards equality. Reflecting on this themeidea, the common perspective becomes relatively construed with the true nature of what African Americans are fighting for. Rather than seeking to find possible solutions and alternatives to the problems on hand, there is then the common perspective that religion can become a solution to the problem. Such conceptualization only discourages possible solutions and alienates the capacity towards facilitating avenues towards recognition and equality.
    Though this may prove to be an important component in shaping perspectives among African Americans in gaining strength and determination towards their objectives, common ideals must be made in order to generate and explore possible dimensions in extracting new directives leading to development. Seeing this, common ideals must be separated within the functions of religion and the clamor for equality and recognition.

The Republic of Rome had a decline very gradually starting from the March of Sulla upon Rome in 88.  The soldiers of the Roman legions were from the middle class landowners in Rome and the numbers of small-scale landowners were declining very fast, due to various reasons. It was not easy for these farmers to revert once they were soldiers. As a result they depended on their commanders for their future, and the commander received their loyalty as long as they showed these veterans a way for livelihood. At a time when attackers and defenders wrote the history of the world, and all the roads led to Rome, commanders who could effectively manage such comrades-in-arms held the future in their arms.  Let us watch the few leaders who achieved this.

Sulla and his soldiers  Sulla fought King Mithridates of Asia Minor in Greece.  While he was defending Rome, the Senate under Marius was busy declaring him an outlaw. Even though the army of Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, had an army thrice the size of Sullas, the Roman defeated them completely, with the help of his soldiers. After his march on Rome and the defeat of Marius, Sulla rewarded his fellow soldiers by settling them in the suburbs of Rome.  Many of the villagers in the suburbs of Rome were ousted and replaced by the veterans in the army. But he lost his public support with the stoppage of subsidies for grain, thereby disrupting the food supply to more than 300, 00 inhabitants in the city of Rome. His own experience behind him, he decided that he would not favor soldiers who would move in on him and Rome, under any commander who felt so.  So he limited the term of Commander to a short period.  Such was the threat of these armies, which could caution even an iron handed, cold-blooded ruler like Sulla.

Pompey and his rise to power The reforms of Sulla had caused an uprising immediately after his death.  Pompey defeated the Etrurian people, under the leadership of Lepidus. Pompey, after Lepidus death did not agree to disband his army.  He went to Spain, to help Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius against Quintus Sertorius.  The war would have turned in the favor of Sertorius had it not been for the reinforcements that reached Pompey and Pius army from Italy, under the directions of the Senate.  Sertorius was defeated and eliminated.  Pompey and his faithful legions defeated the army that held Spain in rebellion, against the Senate in Rome. Sertorius was defeated because of the disloyalty of his legions especially that of Peperna.   The slave rebellion under Spartacus too gives proof of the loyalty of legions, and the discontent of the masses.

Pompey used this army to buy himself a consulship in 70 along with Crassus.  Even though he was only thirty-five, the Senate gave consulship to Pompey when they saw that they could not face the army that was commanded by Pompey. We find that after he returns from his campaign against King Mithridates, he rewarded his soldiers with 6,000 sesterces when the annual basic pay of a soldier was just 450 sesterces.  He rewarded his officers more handsomely.  He understood their importance and relevance for his position in Rome 1.
1. Mary, Boatwright,  Daniel, Gargola Richard, Talbert The Romans From village to empire. New York Oxford university press. P 220-221.

Under Caesar  The immortal words Veni Vidi Vici, could be claimed to have been made by Caesar due to his faithful legions. Caesar himself paid the money, though not wholly, to raise the legions which amounted to about 50,000 men.  This army aided him in breaking the advance of the Helvetians against the Roman army in Gaul and the German attack on Gaul itself.  The same army with its iron discipline was used to conquer Gaul completely and subjugate it under Roman rule.  While in Rome, he had actually made the Senate swear an oath to respect the land distribution, which had a direct impact on the legions, which were the most affected. After the wars abroad, he took steps to settle his veterans.  Unlike Sulla, he did not take away much land by force and only 15,000 men were settled in Rome.  Others were given lands overseas, or confiscated lands that were taken from enemies who had joined in the fights against Caesar.  Two such colonies that became prominent were Carthage and Corinth.  Some of his fellow men in the army found their place in the Senate.  There were men who were as low in rank as Centurion, in the house of Senators.   Thus, Caesar had rewarded an army which had made him almost King over a dead Republic.

Second Triumvirate  When the Senate was confronted with the choice of granting the position of Consul to Octavian,  they declined the plea.  However, the senate soon forgot this when Octavian marched onto to Rome with five legions loyal to him.  Soon the duo of Antony and Octavian was to have twenty legions each to pursue and punish the Assassins of Caesar.  This huge army was impossible to feed and even the second set of proscriptions along the model of Sulla was not sufficient.  Then we find the second triumvirate committing the outrage of handing over 18 richest Italian cities with their lands to the armies. They went to this extent because they knew the importance of keeping the soldiers content.  With these legions, they defeated Cassius and Brutus at the battle of Phillippi. 

Nevertheless, When Octavian was faced with the question of the regime to rule Rome, It has to be noted that Octavian was reluctant to present an army based monarchy in Rome, as he knew how fickle the soldiers could be.

A diet is the total nutrient value that is found in the food that one consumes. It is usual that the different regions of the world or even the different people in the world consume food with different nutritive values. The different parts of the world have people with different preferences when it comes to the kind of food that they take. This varies because of diverse reasons. It might be due to culture, religion and even the availability of food. The American population is made up of people from the different regions of the world apart from the natives. This presents a wide range of choice of diets as each and every one goes with the diet that they like.
In the United States of America, the different ethnic groups have influenced the dietary intake of America. For instance, in the early twentieth century, the continents experienced a shift in dietary preferences. For instance, the widely African diets that included foods that are rich in starch like cassava and yam were introduced into the American feeding culture. The other influences that came from the other continents would include those that are rich in proteins from the Southern American region. An example would be pork from pigs. The dietary influences, just like now, were also heavily leaning on the lifestyles of the people and hence you would find that those who could afford heavy spending on food would actually get food that would form what was considered to be balanced diet then. These were meals that contained the most basic nutrients in sufficient quantities in the daily food intake. Together, with the influence from most of the continents, America stopped leaning heavily on animal proteins, mainly from cattle. This gave way to eating culture that would include intake of alcohol on much more restrained intervals. Before that, the diet had included alcohol in the form of whisky.
The coming of slaves to America in the eighteenth and nineteenth century also brought in a mixture of food cultures that included food mainly found in the western part of Africa. In America, they were referred to as the soul food. Up to date, it is a term that is used to refer to food that is mainly a dietary preference of the African American population. The soul food is a diet that is rich in proteins and carbohydrates. An example is the quantity of poultry products and whole meal corn and rice that is common in the diet.
During the post World War II period, the American diet experienced a huge change in the foods that were recommended as there has been an effect of the unrestricted diet that having been there before. Due to the lifestyles that had changed after a high rate of development, most people that were working in the towns began to experience a more sedentary kind of lifestyle. With it came diseases that affected the different body systems. There was need to introduce diets that would be consistent with the kind of lifestyles that the people were used to. For instance, more strict diets were to be observed by the people who lead sedentary lives. This includes food that is low in fats, especially animal ones that contain saturated fats. Some other food that was to be taken in small were those products that contain a lot of carbohydrates and gluten e.g. processed food like refined wheat, corn floor and rice.
    Currently, we find more and more people observing strict diets that might even totally kick out the consumption of animal products. This is referred to as the vegan culture. Most of those who observe this kind of diet do it mostly due to ethical reasons as opposed to health measures. In as much as there are those who might eat some kind of animal product while avoiding some particular others these are strictly not vegans. They are vegetarians. Vegetarian diet might include food that does not consist of meat as an animal product and other products such as eggs.
    The current diet in America also tends to lay less emphasis on highly refined food such as processed grains like wheat floor, rice and corn floor. Among the processed foods is also a list of products that are canned like fish, meat and beans. These are considered to digest quickly in ones system thereby leading to the body needing more food which in turn introduces us to a feeding culture that is not healthy. Fast food is also a form of current diet that is not very healthy and that is common in the current culture. Fast food has been known to contain an unregulated amount of fats that the body does not necessarily need. Unfortunately enough, much of the population that can not afford the healthy diet are exposed to the danger posed by frequent consumption of fast food.

Few would disagree with the statement that formal western philosophy has its origins in the Archaic Age of Greece. The name of Thales founder of Philosophic materialism Pythagoras founder of philosophic idealism and Heraclitus (545-485 B.C.) first dialectical thinker, immediately come to mind when one attempts an explanation of the men who originated this mode of thought. Equally important would be the work of Hellenic age thinkers (479-323 B.C.) like the Pre-Socratics the Sophists Socrates (470-399 B.C.), Plato (427-437) and Aristotle (384 -322 B.C.). Of all the thinkers associated with this era, Aristotle is reputed to have had the most comprehensive mind  a polymath (Hollister, McGee and Stokes 95). Besides Plato, 
Aristotle, more than any other thinker, determined the orientation and the content of Western intellectual history. He was the author of a philosophical and scientific system that through the centuries became the support and vehicle for both medieval Christian and Islamic scholastic thought until the end of the 17th century, Western culture was Aristotelian. And, even after the intellectual revolutions of centuries to follow, Aristotelian concepts and ideas remained embedded in Western thinking (Sowerby 115).

A short Biography
But who was Aristotle This will be the subject of this essay. Towards this end, the writer will attempt a synopsis of Aristotles biography, a review of the times in which he lived and his achievements and historical significance.

Unfortunately, any attempted reconstruction of Aristotles biography will have to rely on virtually hagiographies (like that of Hermippus of Smyrna), legends, ancient tittle-tattle and bilious works of jaundiced critics as the major sources, for these reasons, Aristotles biographers have to grope about, in a highly subjective fashion, for anything that might fill the gaps in his life. However, experts seem to agree on the particulars of the sketch written below.

    Aristotle was born in 384 at Stagira on the Chalcidic peninsula of northern Greece (Blakesley 12-13). His father, Nicomachus, belonged to the guild of the asclepiads (physician) and his mother, a native of Chalcis in Euboea, was named Phaestis. Admittedly, knowledge of Aristotles early years is virtually absent. In fact the only thing that most experts seem to agree on is that, given his fathers profession, it is highly likely that he would have accompanied his father in his travels. However, it is known that his father migrated from Chalcidice to Macedonia where he was appointed the personal physician of Amyntas III, King of Macedonia (Sowerby 137). There is no record to indicate whether Aristotle accompanied his father to Pella, the capital of Macedonia (138). However, given Aristotles friendship with Amyntass son, Philip, it is reasonable to conclude that their friendship was cultivated in Pella during his fathers tenure as the court physician. 

    When Aristotle was about 10 years, his father died, and since his mother also seems to have died young, Aristotle was brought up by his uncle, Proxenus of Atarneus (Hoffe 4). Under Proxenus, Aristotle learned Greek, rhetoric and poetry. At the age of 17 years (367 B.C.) he enrolled at Platos Academy in Athens. When Aristotle arrived at the academy, Plato was away on his first visit to Syracuse and the institution was being run by Eudoxus of Cnidos. Notable personalities who were teaching at the institution during this time included Speusippus, Platos nephew and Xenocrates of Chalcedon. After a brief stint as a student, Aristotle became a teacher at the academy where he was to remain until Platos death in 367 B.C. (4). According to Diogenes Laertius who wrote in the second century A.D., Aristotle taught rhetoric and dialectic (2). This claim, according to most experts, is not far fetched, given the fact that Aristotle wrote on rhetoric (issued a critique of Isocrates rhetoric titled Gryllus) during this time.

    After 20 years, Aristotle left the academy. The circumstances surrounding his exit have been traced to two developments. First, it has been argued that Aristotle left Athens due to frustrated philosophical ambition. That being one of Platos star student, he expected the dying philosopher to bequeath him the leadership of the academy however, at his death in 347 B.C., Plato transferred the leadership of the academy to his nephew Speusippus a bitter disappointment to Aristotle who was generally opposed to Speusippus views (Green 53-54). Further, the death of Amyntas III in 369 B.C. precipitated a series of events which were to impact directly on Aristotles life (54). For a time, Amyntas III sons, Alexander II and Perdiccas III, reigned in a period characterized by bloody factional feuds. However, in 359 B.C., Aristotle boyhood friend Phillip sized the Macedonian throne, and after pacifying the kingdom, went on a conquering spree annexing Olynthus, Chalcidice and Stagira (Aristotles town of birth). A worried Athens, forewarned by the great orator, Demosthenes, became increasingly uncomfortable with Macedonia, and as some have suggested with individuals, such as Aristotle with known connection to the Philip  recently, Chroust argued that Aristotle left Athens because of anti-Macedonian feeling and rather than through frustrated academic ambitions (Chroust 4).

    From Athens, Aristotle migrated to Assos, together with Xenocrates of Chalcedon. In Assos, they took up residence at the court of Hermeias, ruler of Atarneus. In due course, Aristotle married Pythias, Hermeias niece and had a daughter called Pythias with her - unkind whispers even had it that he had a homosexual relationship with Hermeias himself during his stay at the court (53). However, after ten years, the wife died. Apart from his philosophical activities, he also acted as a political confidant to his patron and a link man between Hermeias and Philip (Sowerby 138). In 3454 B.C. he moved to Mytilene, probably at the invitation of Theophrastus. According Green, he stayed on the island for a couple of years researching, teaching and spying on the Persians at the Troad (54). In 345 B.C. the Philosopher-Eunuch, Hermeias, was captured and executed by the by Mentor, Artaxerxes Greek henchman.

Fearing for his life, Aristotle moved, stopping at Lesbos for about one year, before reaching Macedonian in 343 B.C. where he was to remain for seven years. Tradition reports that during this time, he resided, for some time, at Mieza, a village in the foothills of the Bermius range where he tutored Phillips thirteen year old son, Alexander, the future world conqueror. In 340 B.C. he moved back to his fathers hometown, Stagira, along with his scientists and philosophers (Green 53). At Stagira, he had a relationship with Herpyllis, with whom he had a son, Nicomachus.

Meanwhile, Phillip was assassinated in a palace intrigue in 336 B.C. and Alexander assumed the reigns. In 335 B.C., at the encouragement of Alexander, Aristotle moved to Athens where he founded his own school to rival the Academy, in the Lyceum, a gymnasium in the temple of Apollo Lyceus, located in a groove outside Athens (Sowerby 138). Contrary to the Academy which had a narrow interest, Aristotles Lyceum had a broader range of subjects. According to tradition, which arose several centuries after his death   
 Aristotle in these same years lectured - not once, but two or three times, in almost every subject - on logic, physics, astronomy, meteorology, zoology, metaphysics, theology, psychology, politics, economics, ethics, rhetoric, poetics and that he wrote down these lectures, expanding them and amending them several times, until they reached the stage in which we read them (Grayeff 112).

With the death of Alexander the great in 323 B.C. and the subsequent revolt against Macedonian subordinates in Athens, Aristotle, fearing political persecution, fled to his mothers hometown of Chalcis  arguing that he wished to spare Athens from committing a second sin against philosophy (Hollister, McGee, Stokes 94). He died the following year (322 B.C.) from a stomach complaint.

    As to his personality, pretty little is known, but Green writes his personal appearance was foppish, not to say eccentric. He was balding, spindle-shanked, and had small eyes..he wore dandified clothes, cut and curled his hair in affected manner and numerous rings spangled in his fingers (Barnes b 3). Further, according to Barnes writes He was a good speaker, lucid in his lectures, persuasive in conversation and he had a mordant wit. His enemies, who were numerous, made him out to be arrogant and overbearing (Barnes 4).
Aristotle Times
Technically, Aristotles life spanned the twilight years of the Hellenic age (479 -323 B.C.) and the dawn of the Hellenistic age (323-31 B.C.). The Hellenic age has been divided by historians in four phases The Delian league wars in Greece and in Persia and the ensuing thirty years peace the Peloponnesian War and Spartan and Theban hegemony and the triumph of Macedonia (Mathews and Platt 58) - However, Aristotles lifetime, spanned the last tow phases.

Despite a century of destructive civil wars in Greece, the Hellenic age marked the high point of classical civilization. Political systems, philosophical concepts and artistic concepts evolved at a breakneck pace. Aristocracies fell, autocracies flourished and democracies (hitherto unknown) emerged in an atmosphere characterized by acute political awareness and social change (84). At the same time, the self assurance of Greeks, who was generally confident of their cultural superiority, never wavered. At its zenith, Periclean Athens and other poleis would produce some of the finest work of architecture, sculpture and drama.    
Throughout this age, Athens was the leading cultural centre of the Greek world. Atop its acropolis gleamed brilliantly designed temples (Parthenon among others), at the Agora, philosophers debated the most pressing questions on the days in an atmosphere of relative freedom the sophists openly doubted the existence of the Olympian deities, questioned philosophical inquiry and the notion of absolute truth Socrates responded to there claims in his own corrosive fashion, so would Plato and Aristotle. In the words of Hollister et al., the modern academic counterpart of fourth-century Athens would be a huge state university campus (95). Elsewhere, citizens congregated outdoors to discharge their civic and political responsibilities. Here they debated and passed laws or did jury duties. In their leisure time, they cheered the athletes in the open-air gymnasium. During the drama festivals the whole city would turn out to sample the latest tragedy or comedy (96). And when the tocsin sounded, young men were paraded off to some bloody war, perhaps with a neighboring polis.

As the 4th century progressed, a slow and progressive decay of everything classic gripped Athens. The curtailment of the freedom of academic inquiry was hallmarked by the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C., gifted amateurism declined, administrative procedures became more intricate, citizen soldiers gave way to mercenaries, rampant individualism increased and patriotism waned. In Kittos words, progress broke the Polis (quoted by Hollander McGee and Stokes 96). In the end, Athens would be defeated in the Peloponnesian war (431-404 B.C.).   

However, if the sort lived Athenian empire hallmarked the golden age of Classic civilization, the defeat of Athens heralded a gradual decline of classicism. The succeeding Spartan and Theban hegemony - in an age characterized by political intrigue and incessant inter-polis feuds - fell to a semi-barbarian, monarchical state of Macedonian. Phillip, the Macedonian king, then brought the Greek states under his rule - however under Philip, these poleis still enjoyed some relative autonomy (Pomeroy 379).
 Like I stated earlier, Philip was succeeded by his 19 year old son Alexander, who, immediately, went on a world conquering expedition. His Greco-Macedonian army marched into Asia Minor, Egypt and Mesopotamia, thereby bringing the Persian Empire to an end, and then he looted his way through Asia to the Indus in India. At his abrupt death in 322 B.C. his empire fragmented into three successor kingdoms - Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Asia, and Antigonid Macedonia.
In short, Aristotles times were characterized by incessant wars, an intellectual revolution, the end of the Hellenic age and the beginning of the Hellenistic age.

Aristotles Achievements
While the argument among scholars as to whether Aristotle wrote any of the treatises assigned to him continues, his intellectual contribution to western thought is not in doubt. Interestingly, Aristotles works were first published in 60 B.C. by Andronicus of Rhodes, the last head of the Lyceum (Cornford 54). Although his extant works may represents only a fragment of his entire works  if Diogenes claims is anything to go by, they include his investigation on a wide range of subjects including logic, metaphysic, ethics, physics, biology, psychology, politics, and rhetoric (Sowerby 137).

    His biological studies, which were based on careful observations and classification into genus and species, were groundbreaking (Hollister, McGee and Stokes 94). In fact, he was the first philosopher to conduct a systematic study of biota, through the empirical method. His studies in metaphysic and logic were similarly revolutionary. In Nicomachean Ethics, he formulated a relatively new ethical principle  the idea of the golden mean. Arguing that anger and love, eating and drinking are neither good not evil they should neither be suppressed nor carried to excess and that virtue is the avoidance of extremes (95). Further, Aristotles rhetoric has had a profound influence on the development of the art of rhetoric in the west. Not only authors writing in the peripatetic tradition, but also the famous Roman teachers of rhetoric, such as Cicero and Quintilian, frequently used elements stemming from the Aristotelian doctrine (Sowerby 138). In addition, his literary criticism is still lauded for its penetrating analysis of tragedy. For a long time in western history, his notions of how drama should be structured stood as virtual law (Hollister 95).

    For 2000 years, Aristotelianism defined western physics. Although his physics had its obvious weaknesses because he defined things in terms of their qualitative differences rather than quantitative differences, it constituted a radical break from the past approaches. In fact, his system building attempt (explanation of how the world works) was a monumental intellectual achievement. The synthesis between Aristotle and the second century philosopher, Ptolemy, ideas would constitute what pundits call the Old Paradigm the so-called Aristotelian  Ptolemaic synthesis dominated western science until the Copernican revolution (Mathews and Platt 70). Further, Aristotles metaphysics and physics profoundly influenced western theological thinking. Besides Christians, Muslims and Jews ranked his books just below their scriptures in the medieval ages. Today, Roman Catholic Church theology is woven warp and woof across Aristotles philosophy and his logic and ethics continues to be taught in college philosophy courses.

Seminoles White Potato Clan Legend
In the late 1840s Ireland experienced famine because potato production dropped due to mold infections (Grubb and Guilford, 1912). It is a crop recommended for Chineses consumption to help alleviate drought since it requires less water supply than rice and corn (Coonan, 2007). Potatoes serve as one of the most common root crops in the United States (Pack et al, 2003). Potatoes are important in early civilizations like the Incans (Chapman, 2000). Potatoes were their staple crop and managed to preserve it for up to ten years through dehydrating and mashing.
Among the several varieties of potatoes, the white-skinned potato was the one grown commercially all throughout Florida (Pack et al.,2003). The texture also differs due to its relative smoothness in comparison to other varieties. Its tubers have shallower eyes. The Seminole and Miccosukee tribes in South Florida are also involved in the cultivation of potatoes in the area. In fact, one of the Seminole tribes is known as the white-potato clan. This clan has its share of legend transmitted through oral folk tales.
The clan system of the Seminole is matrilineal (Weismann, 1999). This means that the clans of the children are based on the clan of their mothers. According to legends, the white-potato clan was formed when male Seminole natives married white people (Mikasuki). The union produced clan-less children. If a child does not belong to any clan, they will not be able to enjoy the privileges enjoyed by those with clans. In addition, there is a tradition that people from the same clan cannot inter-marry.
Thus, according to the legend, the mothers of the clan-less children talked to the village elders. The elders instructed them to pray to the Creator. They went to the place for prayers and asked for the creators guidance. For several days, the mothers prayed until finally the creator spoke to them. The creator told them to look for a plant from the grounds, which would give them instructions to solve their problem and the clan name for their children. The creator said that the plant was located in the place with soft ground and black waters. (Mikasuki) The legend said that the search continued for days until the mothers were about to give up. The mothers prayed for the creators guidance, and they finally heard the plants voice. The plant told the mothers that it may be living underground but the creator had vested him with the ability to see things in all directions at once. The plant told them that they need to take out its eyes and plant it on small mounds. The plant said that upon doing this, the people would have an ample supply of food. The legend said that the clan-less children became the White Potato Clan and that the white potato remained an important part of the Seminoles diet.
It could be deduced from the above discussion that plants are seen as the messenger of the creator and the manifestation of his grace, ability to help and power. Humans are portrayed as beings that depend on plants even on minute matters such as a clan-name. The importance of white potato in the current environment and society, especially in the Native Americans diet sustained the legends existence.